2013년 8월 10일 토요일

저자의 죽음에 관한 고찰

<저자의 죽음에 관한 고찰> 저자는 누구인가? 우선 롤랑 바르트의 의견을 가장 중립적인 입장을 택할 수밖에 없는 '위키피디아'를 통해 들어보자. 이후 필자의 견해를 댓글을 통해 밝히도록 하겠다. - 롤랑 바르트 (1915~1980) -   초기에는 마르크스주의자에서 참여적 실존주의자로 후기에는 기호 언어학자에서 원전 비평가로 그 얼굴을 바꾼 롤랑 바르트(Roland Barthes)는 의심할 바 없이 1960년대와 1970년대 프랑스의 이론가 중 가장 기발하고 재간 있고 대담한 이론가였다. 그의 문학 비평이 언어 사회학이나 구조주의 기호학과 긴밀히 결합되어 있는 것은 너무나 당연하다.  프랑스적 수재의 전형인 롤랑 바르트는 그 외모에서 보듯 아주 지적이고 때론 아주 차갑게까지 느껴진다. 그는 조르주 바타이유처럼 한마디로 규정하기는 어렵지만 서구 문화의 광기와 열정으로 넘치는 첨단 문학가임에는 틀림없다. 롤랑 바르트의 문학적 이상은 ‘글쓰기의 신화에서 완전히 벗어난 에로티시즘의 회복’에 있다. 이는 말의 원형을 회복함으로써 성의 원전을 그대로 복구하려는 시도라고 바꾸어 말할 수 있다. 그의 연구는 문학의 장르보다는 원전 연구에 집중된다. 그러나 그는 불합리적이고 비논리적인 연관의 관계를 캐내기 위해서 그 원전들을 초월해 나간다. 그의 의도는 소위 모든 허위 관념과 지배 이념을 폭로하는 데 있다.   그는 원문들 속에 숨어 있는 또 그 배후에 깔려 있는 것들을 추정하며, 행간에 담긴 단어들과 의미들을 재해석하며 글의 내용을 작가의 의도와 관계없이 자유롭게 연상하게 하는 길을 열어 주었다. 그는 『글쓰기 영도(零度) Le degré zéro de l'écriture』라는 개념을 도입하여 원전의 배후 의도를 밝히고 모든 언어의 원형적 무의식인 세계를 벌거 벗기려 했다.   글쓰기 0도란 글쓰기에 있어 의미의 폐쇄, 후퇴 그리고 보류를 뜻한다. 롤랑 바르트는 글의 의미 그 자체보다 그 의미를 창출하는 과정에 더 관심이 있었다.  글을 쓴다는 건 진정한 글쓰기의 거부하는 것이고 또한 그 문턱을 넘는 것도 거부하는 것이다. 이것은 바로 '글쓰기를 하지 않는 글쓰기(écriture sans écriture)' 라는 것이다.   단순한 관능적 즐거움이 아닌 정신적 희열을 추구하는 이 '본원적 글쓰기(archiécriture)' 는 무엇보다도 '이미 쓰여진 문화 (always ahead written)' 체계 내의 작업을 거부하는 것을 의미한다. 진정한 문학이 사라지고 더 이상 거짓말투성이의 그 비밀을 두려워하지 않아도 되는 '제로점'에서 그는 다시 문학을 끌어내는 것이다.   이 관점은 다시 문학을 본래의 것으로 돌려놓고, 중립적일 수 없는 글쓰기를 '중립화 (neutralité)'하는 것이다. 한번도 언급한 적이 없는 말, 결코 그치거나 들려 주지 않을 수 없는 말을 하는 것이며 글쓰기의 원점과 태초 원형으로 돌아감을 뜻한다. 롤랑 바르트는 초기에 사르트르 등 좌파 지식인들과 마찬가지로 '참여 문학(littérature engagée)'을 통해 인간애를 발휘하여 프티-부르주아적 출신을 초월하려고 그들과 가까이 지내기도 했지만, 여타의 지식인 마찬가지로 그는 결국 소쉬르의 기호학에 가담하게 되고, 레비-스트로스의 구조주의 인류학 즉 어떻게 신화들이 인간 안에서 사고하는가 하는 점과 그 공통적 기원을 언어학적 방법론으로 사회 현상에 어떻게 적용할 것인가를 고민하게 된다. 그러나 그는 다시 이 구조주의를 넘어선다. 그는 기존의 문학과 비평을 전면 거부하고, 작가의 창조력까지도 넘어서는 비평의 상상력을 발휘하여, 비평이 작가의 예속 상태에서 벗어난 진정한 문학의 독립 장르임을 선포했다.   조장하는 대중 매체의 의해서 은폐된 메시지를 가차없이 폭로하고 우파나 좌파 가릴 것 없이 그 신화의 위장성과 허위성을 파헤친다. 롤랑 바르트는 1850년경 플로베르나 발자크를 고비로 부르주아적 질서가 해체되는 것으로 보는데 이것은 단지 그의 비평의 작은 시작일 뿐이다.   프랑스의 고전 문학은 부르주아적 질서의 불가피성을 꾸밈없이 반영 그 가치를 약호화한 것에 지나지 않다는 것이라는 말에서부터 우리는 그의 문학 비평이 얼마나 엄청난 선전 포고이며 그의 문학의 길이 평탄하지 않음을 이미 예고하고 있다. 롤랑 바르트는 우선 글쓰기에 있어 언어소를 분석하면서 다양한 서술 방식의 출현을 파편화하고 작가의 부르주아적 기원을 캐내어 제시한다.   그는 작가의 언어를 통해 소위 문학적 창조를 검증한다는 것과 언어와 특수한 원전들에서의 표현이 이런 뿌리에 근거한 것이라는 역사적 차원 사이를 구별시켜 준다는 것이 유용하다고 결론 내리고 있다. 그는 문학 전통의 모든 영역을 공격자였다. 문화 전쟁의 홍수 시대에 그는 가장 적이 많은 지휘자 역할을 했고 그의 비평은 무자비한 융단 폭격이다.   그의 이 노력의 방법론은 '통렬한 아이러니(devastating irony)'인데 이것은 결국 이중 부정 내지 양자 부정일 수밖에 없다.  그는 영화나 관광을 포함한 대중 소비 문화에까지도 언급을 하면서 상업성과 자본 증식의 대가는 진정한 에로티시즘의 상실을 초래했다고 보며 이제는 단지 하나의 스포츠와 오락만 남게 되었다고 꼬집는다. 그는 라신(Racine) 연구에서 라신의 파토스 속에 숨긴 정치적 의도를 맹공격한다. 그의 연극 속에 주인공의 열정은 사랑이 아니라, 정욕적 상황에 있어서의 힘이라는 점을 지적하자, 라신의 비평의 대가 레이몽 피카르 (Raymond Picard)는 그와 격렬한 논쟁이 벌리게 된다.   그뿐 아니라 롤랑 바르트는 20세기에 최대로 존경받는 랑송(Lansonisme)까지도 그의 비평의 대상에 포함시킨다. 그는 그들의 비평을 정치적이고 지적 보수주의이며 실증적 부르주아 이념이라고 비난하고 있다. 그들은 또한 롤랑 바르트의 신비평을 '악마의 손잡은 사악한 원흉'이라고 되받아 치고 있다. 바르트는 1960년 『작가의 죽음 The death of the author』을 선언하여 큰 반향을 일으킨다. 이 글에서 작가는 텍스트의 기원이고 의미의 근원이며 해석을 위한 유일한 권위를 가진다는 전통적인 견해를 거부했다.   그는 작가를 평가 절하하여 다음과 같이 꼬집어 말하고 있다. “작가란 그 시대의 재능 있는 도구에 지나지 않는다.” 그는 작가가 범하는 가장 큰 과오는 언어가 독자에게 정확하고 확실하게 진리 또는 사실로 알게 하는 가장 자연적이고 솔직한 매체라는 주장은 거짓말이라고 반박한다. 그는 독자들이 저자의 의도와 관계없이 자신들의 의미를 - 창출한다고 생각했다. 그리하여 독자들이 그렇게 하기 위해서 사용하는 텍스트들은 항상 유동적이고 불안정하고 의심을 받아야 한다고 믿었다. 물론 이 점은 그러한 해석에서 벗어날 수 없는 과학적 내지 구조주의적 저자에게도 똑같이 적용된다. 신비평에서는 텍스트의 통일성이 작가의 의도에 의해서가 아니라 작품 그 자체의 구조에 달려 있다고 믿었고, 인본주의적 내지는 인간주의적 개념을 추방하는데 급진적이었다. 동시에 그는 독자의 고유성 확보에 크게 기여했다. 그는 작가가 가진 모든 형이상학적 상태를 벗겨 버리고 사거리 골목으로 그 지위를 낮춘 다음 그곳에 인용과 반복, 모방과 지시 교차와 재교차의 무한한 보고를 올려놓는다. 그리하여 독자들은 어느 방향으로든지 텍스트에 가담하는 데 자유롭게 해 주었다. 거기에 어떤 공식은 없다. 그의 이런 충격적 선언은 그를 사람들이 논쟁을 좋아하는 인물, 독단론자, 이념적 인상주의자로 불리어지는 건 너무나 당연한지 모른다. 1968년 『기호학 요강(Éléments de la sémiologie)』에서 그는 언어와 그의 메시지를 탈신화화하는 데 주력하여 근대 모든 작가를 그의 비평 언어에 끼어 넣었다. 그는 문헌 연구에서 인류 문화의 모든 기호 체계를 설명할 수 있다고 믿었다. 언어를 단지 기호일 뿐이라고 본 것이다. 우리는 언어를 사용함으로써 실재를 창조한다기보다는 언어가 오히려 우리를 위해 실재를 구성한다는 구조주의 언어 철학과 맥을 같이한다. 그는 더 나아가 기호학적 분석은 다시 언어로 무너져 버린다고 경고와 함께 현실로 완전히 침투하는 예술 즉 예술과 현실의 경계는 그 둘이 보편적인 모조품으로 전락하면서 완전히 사라져 버린다 라고 봤다. 바르트는 문학뿐만 아니라 패션, 레슬링, 스트립쇼, 스테이크와 감자 튀김, 사진 그리고 심지어는 일본 회사까지 포함하여 문화적인 모든 것의 부호 해독이 가능하다는 것을 인식하고 기호학 옹호자였다. 다시 말해 이미지, 몸짓, 음악적 음향으로 된 모든 것을 기호라고 주장은 전통적 작가로부터 엄청난 비판의 대상이 된다. 기호학자에게 언어로부터의 출구는 없다, 그 분석을 수행하는 그의 소위 '메타 언어(méta-langage)' 개념은 여기에서 나온 것이다. 이 개념은 1차 언어를 넘어서는 2차 언어를 뜻하며 언표 되지 않은 언어의 무의식적 구성 요소를 분석하고 있다. 그에게 있어 언어의 메시지는 단지 하나의 유통 과정이거나, 자율 신경적 통로 일 뿐 그 이상 그 이하도 아니다. 발생 시기에 있어서 단어의 '기호적 지향(parole parlante)'과 '언표된 언어(parole parlée)' 를 확연히 대립시켜 구분하고 있다. 메타 언어는 일상 언어의 속성을 설명하기 위해 고안한 구조주의와 같은 기술적인 언어이다. 언어를 통해서 의미를 창조하는 것은 인간이 아니라 인간을 말하는 언어라고 한 비트겐슈타인은 이미 1920년대에 메타 언어로서의 논리적 한계에 도전 받기도 했다. 특권이 부여된 또는 메타 언어적인 입장은 언어 자체에 의해 창조된 신기루이다. 구조주의와 기호학 그리고 의미의 수수께끼로부터의 해방을 약속한 다른 형태의 메타 언어들은 다시 언어로 되돌아올 뿐 이 역시 출구는 없다. 이 '초언어학(trans-linguistique)'은 사회 속에 기호들의 삶을 연구하는 학문 소시민적인 신화의 폭로와 함께 과학적으로 발전된 방법 접근이다. 그는 점차 러시아 형식주의와도 담을 쌓으면서 또한 이런 구조주의와 조금씩 멀어 지면서, 더욱 더 원전 분석에 정열을 쏟는다. 1973년경에 나온 『원문의 즐거움(Le plaisir du texte)』에서 그는 이런 개념들을 도입한다.   '파편, 사실, 경구, 건드리기 및 치기, 찌르기, 팔꿈치로 치기, 거품 내기, 반응 떠보기, 불가피한 무작위의 계기와 쾌락을 잡아내기, 행복을 얻기'를 여러 항목으로 나누어 열망하는 임의적인 계획에서의 불가피하게 무작위성에 심혈을 기울인다. 원전 연구에 더욱 기울어진 것은 1968년 학생 시위로 좌파 지식인들이 탈정치화 현상이 두드러지고, 정치적 행동의 무용성이 대두하면서부터이다.   그는 발자크의 단편 『사라신(Sarrasine)』 를 561개의 '독서 단위(lexia)'로 나누어 분석하기도 했다 그의 5가지 약호 즉 '해석학적 분류, 의미론적 분류, 상징적(다의적) 분류, 서술적(행동적) 분류, 문화적 분류' 등을 통해 원문들을 다각적으로 분석하고 있다.   우리의 언어가 우리 자신의 것이 되지 못할 때, 우리는 삶의 상실과 고통 빠지게 된다는 말을 우리에게 시사하는 점이 많다. 말의 논리와 성의 게임은 신화나 설화의 본질을 왜곡함을 지적하면서 특히 현대 사회에서 시라는 장르는 그 기생성으로 혹되게 비판받아야 마땅하다고 보았다. 그의 문학 시기를 흔히 초기 '감탄(émerveillement) 시기’, 중기 '과학 (science)시기’, 말기 ‘텍스트(texte) 시기’로 나누기도 하는데 말기에 해당하는 이 시기에 그는 원전 연구에 깊이 빠진다. 원전에서 얻어지는 '텍스트의 지적 쾌락(plaisir)’은 '단순한 즐거움(jouissance)’과 구별되는 것이다. 사드, 푸르니에, 로욜라 문학에 대한 문학 비평은 신성 모독과 같은 효과를 낸다. “책은 의미를 창출하고 의미는 삶을 창출한다” 라는 말은 독자에게 자기 방식으로 원전을 해석하는 가능성을 열어 주었다. 원죄의 즐거움과 원문의 즐거움은 서로 통하는 점이 있다. 나체의 미가 의복을 만나는 순간 성적 쾌감이 모아지듯이 텍스트의 효과는 주석이 없는 있는 그대로의 언어와 관련되어 비정통적이거나 부당한 어떤 것을 낳게 된다고 보았다. 그의 말기의 저서 『에스 제드(S/Z)』에서 레비-스트로스 부족 전체 문화 체계 속 파악처럼 독자는 저자의 의도를 무시한 채 자유롭게 텍스트 의미 형성하고 참여하며 텍스트의 절대적 근원과 그 의미의 존재를 부인한다. 독자가 참여하는 텍스트를 2가지 유형으로 나뉜다. 첫번째 유형은 독자의 고유성을 인정하며 고정된 의미의 소비자로 보는 것과 두번째 유형은 작가성을 지닌 생산성으로 보는 것이다. 그는 독자를 고전적 의미의 단순한 소비자뿐만 아니라 더 나아가 다원적 의미의 적극적인 생산자로도 보는 것이다.   그는 자신이 '전위의 후위'라는 비난을 감수하면서까지 [S/Z] 서로의 차이를 인정하지 않고 모든 것이 하나의 구조로 파악하는 구조주의를 비판하고 나섰다. 그는 언어의 최전선에서 새로운 단어 창출하는 데 거침이 없다. 지적 사회의 문화 전쟁 속에 대표 주자로 그는 더욱 무례하고 신랄하며 제멋 대로다. 원전의 개념은 문학의 개념으로 배로 확대하면서 그는 더욱 파란과 논란의 비평가가 된다. 그는 또다시 무정부주의자의 신, 보수주의자에겐 악마, 문화 애호가에겐 우상이라는 딱지가 붙는다. 그는 모든 문학의 범주화를 거부하고 그의 시대 보다 앞서 치고 가면서 기상천외한 재치와 해박함으로 많은 사람들을 놀라게 한 현대 최고의 지성이다. 프랑스의 예술 사회학자 장 뒤비뇨(Jean Duvignaud)는 그를 이렇게 평하고 있다. “상징과 기호를 통해 자유의 감동과 … 미래의 감정들을 불러일으키면서… 인간이 겪을 수 있는 가장 폭넓은 경험을 얻으려는 실존력을 다루었다.” 신화에 의한 허위 환상에 의해 정지된 즐거움을 원점을 만나게 해 모든 문학의 본래적 의도와 쾌락을 되찾게 해주려는 그의 의도는 참으로 많은 파란과 혹평한 세평을 감수해야 했다. 그만큼 그는 현대 사회와 문학 비평에 많은 물음표를 던지 사람이다. 논쟁의 구심점임을 부정할 수 없다. 어쨌든 롤랑 바르트는 글쓰기의 신화에서 벗어난 글쓰기의 0점에서 글쓰기의 근본적 반성과 함께 진정한 글쓰기를 다시 시작하는 문학적 쾌락주의자였다. 화법의 한 형식이기도 한 모든 신화의 허구성과 모순성을 깨트리며 문학의 과학화와 정보화를 꾀한 최초의 인물이었고 21세기의 문학과 문화의 새 출발과 가능성을 열어 준 사람 중 하나다. 그는 금세기 지칠 줄 모르는 열정으로 진정한 비평 문학의 한 장르를 개척한 문학 논쟁의 최전선 전사요 특이한 기호 문학가였다. 그의 글은 문학 장르를 해체하고 새롭게 태어난 글쓰기의 실천가였다. 즉 그의 글은 그 자체가 시이기도 하고 소설이기도 하고 연극이기도 하고 수필이기도 하고 철학이기도 하고 비평이기도 했다.   위키페디아 내용 롤랑 바르트( Roland Barthes, 1915~1980) 프랑스의 탈구조주의 철학자이자 비평가. [그의 생애]  소르본대학에서 고전문학을 공부한 다음에, 파리에서 고등학교 선생을 했다. 이후 부카레스트, 알렉산드리아에서 대학강사를 하며 보냈고, 1952년 파리의 국립과학센터( Centre national de la recherche scientifique)의 연구원이 되었다. 1953년 근대문학의 형성을 다룬 《글쓰기의 영도 Le Degré zéro de l'écriture》가 출판됐고, 1957년 일상생활의 이데올로기를 비판한 기고문을 모아 엮은《신화론 Mythologies》이 뒤따랐다. 1962년 프랑스고등연구실천원(프랑스어: École pratique des hautes études)의 연구책임자로 임명됐다.  1960년대 기호학과 구조주의에 전념했지만(《기호학원론 Éléments de sémiology》(1964), 《유행의 체계 Systéme de la mode》(1967)), 곧이어 구조주의를 폐기했다.(《S/Z》(1970), 《텍스트의 쾌락 Le Plasir du texte》(1973)).  다재다능하여 연주도 하고 그림도 그렸던 바르트는《오브비와 옵투스 L'Obvie et l'obtus》(1982)에서 슈만과 톰블리(C. Y.  Twombly)를,  <밝은 방: 사진에 대한 노트 La Chambre claire.  Note sur la photographie>(1982) 에서 사진을 다루었다. 1976년 콜레주 드 프랑스( Collége de France)의 문학기호학 교수로 초빙됐다.  바르트의 다방면의 작품들은 고유한 발전과 현실적 위치를 끊임없이 성찰한 결과들이다 (자서전인 《롤랑 바르트가 쓴 롤랑 바르트 Roland Barthes par Roland Barthes》(1975)와 대담집 《목소리의 결정 Le Grain le la voix. Entretiens 1962~1980》(1981) 참고).특히 그가 쓴 '작가의 죽음'은 세계적으로 큰 반향을 일으켰다.  1980년 교통사고로 죽었다. Entretien avec Roland Barthes   [그의 저서] 《글쓰기의 영도 Le Degré zéro de l'écriture》 Paris 1953 《신화론 Mythologies》 Paris 1957 《기호학원론 Éléments de sémiology》 Communications 4 1964 《유행의 체계 Systéme de la mode》 Paris 1967 《기호의 제국 L'Empire des signes》 Genf 1970 《텍스트의 쾌락 Le Plasir du texte》 Paris 1973 《롤랑 바르트가 쓴 롤랑 바르트 R. B. par. R. B. Paris》 Paris 1975 《사랑의 단상 Fragments d'un discours amoureux》 Paris 1977 《강의 Leçon》 Paris 1978 《밝은 방: 사진에 대한 노트 La Chambre claire: Note sur la photographie》 Paris 1980 《목소리의 결정 Le Grain le la voix. Entretiens 1962~1980》 Paris 1981 《비평에세이 Essais critiques III.  L'Obvie et l'obtus》 Paris 1982 《비평에세이 Essais critiques IV.  Le Bruissement de la langue》 Paris 1984 《기호학의 모험 L'Adventure sémilogique》 Paris 1985 《작은 사건들 Incidents》 Paris 1987 《전집 Œuvres complétes》 Paris 1993~1995 * 위키피디아 본문 이전 저자의 죽음: http://blog.hani.co.kr/seulsong/27656







2013년 8월 9일 금요일

헤겔의 찢어진 언어 아이, 그리고 막스 피카르트

막스 피카르트의 언어관은 필자가 주장하는 시간적 뫼비우스의 띠에 걸려 버린 엘리어트의 시빌레의 역설을 잘 드러낸다. 물론 엘리어트 자신이 그런 시간적 도치 구조 안에서 시빌레를 포착하지는 않았다.그러나 그의 다른 작품인 <사중주>를 보면 구체적으로 언어가 스스로 살아 있는 생명체인데 헤겔의 말처럼 그대로 찢어져서 객체가 되는 것처럼 묘사한다. 하이데거의 언어관과 아주 흡사하다. 일정 수준 이상의 경지에 오른 이들은 서로를 탐독하지 않아도 '동일한 직관'의 자극을 받을 말을 하게 된다. 물론 수십년 정도 연구하여 늘 남의 주장을 동의어나 각종 수사학을 동원하여 적당히 포장하는 정도의 논문이나 저술물만 내놓던 이가 갑자기 '돌직구'에 가까운 둔탁한 철학자가 되어 아주 새로운 이론을 내놓는다면 의심을 해보아야 할 것이다. 아니, 오히려 어느 정도의 진전을 이룬 이들을 더욱 경계해야만 할 것이다. 눈에 띄지 않기 때문이다. 나는 왜 자꾸 이렇게 많은 글을 자꾸 남기는 것일까? 논문이 되었든 저술물이 되었든 연구한 내용을 발표할 준비를 해야 하는데, 왜 지난 1년 반동안 왜 이리 노마드처럼 이리저리 디지털 공간을 방랑하며 미완의 초록들만 남기냐는 것이다. 이상은 결코 이 나라의 자생적 지적 결집체들의 체계적인 프로그램에 의해 탄생한 천재가 아닐 것이다. 그냥 불쑥 하늘에서 떨어진 사람이다. 이상의 <실락원>은 정말 소름끼친다. 아래에 류재화님께서 깔끔하면서 묘한 울림을 전달하는 서평을 써주셨는데 아주 큰 도움을 받았다. 다만 마지막 문단의 진리와 관련된 어휘인 veritas는 이자나미의 히토미에서 슬금슬금 기어다니던 그 구더기들과 관련 깊을것이다. 플라톤의 기하학자들은 월경을 한다. 다이이나다. 월경을 하면 다 다이아나라는 말이 아니고 자벌레와 월경이라는 보리(voirie)의 분출이 동음이의어라는 뜻이다. 왜 독일의 드래곤은 따뜻해야 하나? 스페인어 사전도 '벌레 = 따뜻함'으로 이어진다. 일본의 벌레는 된장국이다. 이상의 <실락원>은 정말 소름 끼친다. 조지 오웰의 <1984>와 동일하게 배앓이를 한다. 조지 오웰의 표절일까? 그리고 내가 쓰는 이 무수한 글들이 지닌 아주 뜬금없는 글들 속에서 발견되는 주장들이 과연 다른 학자들의 논문에서 발견된 적이 있을까? 없다. 왜냐하면 나는 그렇게 공부를 좋아하는 사람이 아니기 때문이다. 즉 논문 따위를 거의 읽지 않아왔다. 인간적으로 다시 부탁한다. "우리는 원래 모르던 내용에 대해서는 침묵해야 한다." (웅베르토 나베) 여성 루프는 한 마리일까, 아니면 여러 마리일까? 아마 '뱅마리'(bain-marie)일 것이다. 이중 나베 구조다. 테트베쉬다. 짐승의 더러운 발냄새가 훅, 풍긴다. 다시 한 번 믿는다. 우선 피카르트의 생각을 잘 드러내 주는 본문 인용을 먼저 보고 류재화 님의 맛깔진 해설을 보도록 하겠다. <인간과 말>에 등장하는 막스 피가르트의 언어관이다. 해당 페이지는 한국어판(봄날의책.2013) 기준이다. "언어는 단지 필요와 목적에 맞게 조합해놓은 사물이 아니라 "오늘날까지 살아온 선조가 보았던 모든 것, 즉 존재했던 모든 지나간 사물들 전체를 음성기호로 표기한, 세계에 대한 체계적이며 총체적 묘사" (F.마우트너)인 것이다. 만약 언어가 오직 필요에 의해서만 활용된다면, 언어는 닳아버리고 수축될 것이다. 언어는 침몰하게 될 것이고, 모든 침몰하는 것들을 자신 안에 담아버릴 것이다. 선험성으로 인해 언어는 단순한 용도, 단순한 전달수단 이상의 위치에 있다. 예를 들어, 단순한 전달수단에서 출발한 침묵은 뭔가가 결여된 것이며 비어 있는 것에 불과하다. 하지만 선험성에서 출발한 침묵은 인간의 최초를 향해, 혹은 인간의 종말을 향해, 어떤 기대를 향해 뻗어나가게 된다." (p.20) "인공언어는 모든 공간을, 모든 시간을, 마치 압착기처럼 짜내서 폐기해버린다. 그것은 오직 순간만을 위한 언어다. 마치 순간만을 위해 일회적으로 임대한 것과 같다. 사람이 인공언어를 말한다. 하지만 말을 한 것이 아니라, 오직 하나의 기호를 뱉었을 뿐이다. 그의 세계에는 언어뿐 아니라 사물들까지도 축약되어 존재한다." (p.28) "선험성을 갖춘 언어에는 치유력이 있다. 그런 언어는 인간을 치유할 때, 인간이 스스로를 치유할 필요가 없다. 그런데 오늘날에는 언어 자체가 먼저 치유를 필요로 한다. 불멸은 유한하며 유한한 것은 불멸한다. 살아 있는 사람은 타인의 죽음을 살며, 죽는 사람은 타인의 삶을 죽는다. (헤라클레이토스, <<단장>>,62)" (p.30) "인류의 원죄 이후로 악은 인간에게 주어진 것이다. 원죄 이후로 행해진 모든 악의 형상이 개별적인 악 속에서 모습을 드러낸다. 인간의 개인적 악은 원죄로 인해 이후 인간에게 침투한 악과 사악한 경쟁을 벌인다. 하지만 오늘날에는 모든 악한 행위가 인간에게 미리 주어진 원죄 때문에 나오는 것이 아니라, 개개인이 지금껏 존재하지 않았던 자신의 악을 창조해 내는 것처럼 보인다. 예전에 어느 한 인간이 악하다면, 그것은 그가 이 세상에 있는 악의 일부분, 앞서 주어진 악이자 원죄의 일정 부분에 관여하기 때문이었다. 하지만 오늘날 인간이 악하다는 것은 의미가 다르다. 그에게 어떤 악도 앞서 주어지지 않았고, 대신 그 스스로가 자신의 인성과 개성을 통해 악이란 개념을 최초로 도입이라도 한 것처럼 이해된다." (p.36) "소리를 정신에게 복종시키기, 아이는 아직 그것을 할 수 없고, 노인은 더 이상 할 수 없다. 시간이 흐를수록 점점 더 말 속에서 오직 소리에 속하는 것이 많이 들리게 된다. 정신과 소리는 작별을 시작한다. 삶의 마지막 순간이 오면 모든 것이 작별을 고한다. 소리와 정신의 작별은 궁극적 작별에 대한 선행 작별이다. 이윽고 정신이 완전히 사라져버리는 날, 완전히 꺼져버리는 날, 기억상실형 실어증 증세에서처럼, 그때 이름은 오직 음향에 불과한 것이 된다." (p.59) "어린 아이의 언어는 전체성으로부터 완전히 분리되기 이전의 언어다. 전체성 스스로가 말을 하고 있는 듯하다. 아이의 말에는 하루의 그림이 침묵하고 있다. 그림은 침묵하면서 아이의 안에 있는 침묵하는 언어를 향해 이야기한다. 어른의 말에도 하루의 그림이 있다." (p.118) "오늘날의 말은 이제 내면 언어의 전체성과, 그리고 침묵과 거의 아무런 연관이 없는 상태다. 말은 자신의 전체성을 내면의 심연에 두고 왔다는 사실조차 알지 못한다. 말은 오직 자기 자신만을 알 뿐이다. 말은 고립되었다. 언어의 전체성은 더 이상 말에 어떤 효력도 발휘하지 않는다." (p.121) " 우리의 크라튈로스는 주장한다. 모든 사물마다 그 사물의 속성에서 그대로 빠져나온 하나의 올바른 명칭이 존재한다고. 그런데도 몇몇 사람들끼리 합의를 통해 자기들이 가진 소리의 저장고에서 임의로 말조각을 꺼내 그 사물을 가리키는 이름으로 제멋대로 정해버린 것이라고. 그런 식으로 결정된 것은 그 사물의 진짜 이름이 아니라고. 이름에는 자연에서 유래하는 공정함이 있고, 그 공정함은 어느 누구에게나 동일하다고." (플라톤, <크라튈로스>) '커다란 배 한 척이, 막 여기 운하에 도착하려 한다' (괴테) "수직성 자체는 오늘날까지도 인간 형상의 최우선 요소다. 그 수직성을 이루어낸 창조적인 움직임의 뒤를 이어서, 뼈와 근육, 피가 자연스럽게 형성된 것 같다. 최초로 말이 침묵을 깨고 터져나올 때의 그 결정성과 인간 형상을 이루는 수직체의 결정성은 하나다." (p.190) [프레시안 books] 막스 피카르트의 <인간과 말> 막스 피카르트는 돌연 침묵하게 만든다. 무작정 돌진하던 내 혀가 검은 내 아가리로 들어간다. 말하고 싶은 안달이, 다 설명하고 싶은 강박이, 제 자리를 찾아 돌아가는 형상 기억 장치마냥 수그러든다. 막스 피카르트라는 이름을 분명히 기억할 필요가 있다. 그는 <인간과 말>(배수아 옮김, 봄날의책 펴냄)이라는 너무나 자명한, 진부하기까지 한 제목 아래 무심히 등록되는 저자가 아니다. 그는 관조자, 어둠 속을 주시하는 한 마리 부엉이다. 피카르트의 글에서는 밤바다의 파도 소리가, 모태 속에서 들었을 법한 어머니의 고른 심장 박동 소리가 들린다. '-다'로 연신 조용히 착륙하는 기이한 서술형 종결어미. 우리말의 '-다'가 이토록 내 두개골 아래서 잔잔히 울려 퍼진 적이 없다. 역자 배수아의 말처럼 번역이 "이종간의 사랑"이라면, 독일어와 우리말은 부드러운 안개처럼 잘 뒤섞였다. 사유 충만하면서도 행간마다 내적 공명 가득한 이 장편의 산문시는 다시 내 말로 잘 옮겨지지 않는다. 독서가 텅 빈 허공에 자기만의 정신의 계단을 만들어 오르고 내리며 아찔한 황홀경을 느끼는 일이라면, 그의 글 속으로 직접 들어가는 수밖에 없다. 그런데 이 느리고 차분한, 정체를 알 수 없는 목소리가 분명 무언가를 불쑥, 통째로 보게 만든다. 온전히 옆도, 온전히 뒤도 볼 수 없었던 내 시각의 맹점(盲點)이 일거에 확대되는 느낌이 든다. "죽음은 인간에게 앞서 주어진 것이다. 인간은 자신의 죽음을 죽는 것이 아니라, 그 죽음과 함께 그에게 앞서 주어진 죽음을 죽는 것이다. 죽음이 미리 주어지지 않았다면, 죽음은 인간을 기습하는, 훨씬 더 격렬한 사건일 것이다."(36쪽) 사건이 다가오는 것이 아니라, 이미 앞서 주어진 것이라는 피카르트의 일관된 상념은 종교적 운명론도 아니고, 형이상학적 관념론도 아니다. 우리의 생물적 감각은 이미 그것을 안다. 피카르트는 '아버지'란 "선행하는 창조력"이며 "선행하는 경고"라고 말한다. 어머니란 "선행하는 보호"다. "인간의 기본구조에 속하는 모든 요소는 앞서 주어진 것이다."(16쪽) 막스 피카르트가 이 책에서 줄곧 환기하는 '선험성'은 '내재적 초월'이 아니라 '내재적 하강'으로 번역될 필요가 있다. '이곳', '지금', 이 대기권 생물계의 우리는 애초부터 원초가 아니라 파생이었다. 탄생이 아니라 이동이다. 우리는 양각이며, 돌출이다. 모든 '현존'하는 것의 시작점을 '나', '지금', '여기'가 아닌, 그보다 앞선 지점, 혹은 더 아득히 앞선 지점으로 설정함으로써 피카르트는 시간과 공간의 영역을 왼쪽으로, 그러니까 이미 지나온 것 쪽으로 조금 앞당긴다. 그러고 나면, 우리가 매몰되어 있는 우리의 얼굴, 우리의 자아, 우리의 실존, 우리의 감정, 우리의 의식 따위는 상대적으로 '튀어나온 것', 쓸데없이 '과잉'된 것이다. "얼굴은 우리의 종착역"이라는 피카르트의 말은 '얼굴'이 타자를 위한 현존으로서 내 실존의 당당한 시작이 아니라, 이미 끝나버린 실존, 이미 끝나버린 사랑 행위라는 말로 읽힌다. 그의 세계에서 보자면, 사르트르식 '실존주의'는 일종의 '오버'다. 우리는 좀 더 안으로, 뒤로 물러나야 한다. 내재적 하강으로, 내 내면의 우물을 깊이 파야 한다. 샘물은 저 깊은 심연에서 발생하지, 흘러넘친 물이 아니다. 그런데 이 "이미 주어진 것"이 실은 우리가 영영 잃어버린 것이다. 잃어버린 것이 아니라면, 그것이 발생한 지점에서 우리는 너무 멀리 와 있다. 상류에서 한없이 멀어진 하류의 쓰레기 잔해물처럼 우리는 둥둥 떠다닌다. 숱한 대상을 만나도, 만남은 있으나 떨림이 없다. 토막 난 부도체마냥 자성(磁性) 잃은 나는, 아니 '나'라는 개체는 습성화된 몸짓으로 다른 개체와 붙는 척 할 뿐이다. 모든 것이 과잉인 시대에 사는 우리는 웬만한 것에는 전율하지 않는다. 언어의 과잉, 소리의 과잉, 이미지의 과잉, 빛의 과잉. 손바닥 안에 든, 21세기의 작은 괴물을 하루 종일 바라보며, 그것이 우리를 집어삼키는 줄은 새까맣게 모른 채, 의미조차 생성되지 않는 희한한 기표들을, 날파리 같은 하루살이 검색어들을, 소리만 무성한 잡음어들을 매일같이 집어삼키며 우리는 나날이 '없어지고' 있다. 끊임없이 외연만 연장하는 스토리에 포식되어 우리는 정작 내 내면의 스토리는 잃어버렸다. 과잉의 과잉 시대가 공포스러운 것은 나가도 너무 나간 나머지, 안으로 들어오는 길을 잃어버렸기 때문이다. 사실 최초의 '과잉'은 가장 원초적이며, 가장 본래적이며, 가장 야생적이고 야한, 근원적인 생명점이었다. 창조적인 것은 포만의 정점에서 터진다. 말(末)은 나무 끝에서 막 솟아나온 또 하나의 작은 가지다. 끝이 곧 시작임을 알리는 이 짜릿한 연속성을 찰나에, 단 한 번에 알리는 상형 문자, 그 문자의 힘. 이것은 다른 언어에도 있다. 프랑스어로 '끝'(bout)은 눈, 싹, 꽃망울, 여드름, 단추를 뜻하는 'bouton'으로 이어진다. 과잉은 더는 못 참고 터지는 것, 최초의 순수 배설물이다. 우리는 이 최초의 과잉 지점에서 놀았어야 했다. 그곳에서만 황홀하게 자지러지기 때문이다. 땅속을 뚫고 나온 것이 싹만은 아니다. 인간의 혀, '랑그' (langue), 언어 또한 검은 입 속에서 삐져나온 잎이다. 인간은 말로써 존재하는 것 같지만, 대개는 말로써 자기 존재를 잃는다. 언어는 필수품이자 사치품, 잉여다. 파스칼 키냐르 식으로 말하면, "언어는 공기 중의 혐오스러운 파장"이며, "수상쩍은, 쓸데없는" "삶의 열정"이다. 말들이 얼굴을 만들지는 않으며, 말들 없이도 우리는 산다. 문제는 진짜 언어는 발설된 언어 이전에, 언어의 근원에 있는데, 이 근원은 얼굴이, 형체가 없다는 것이다. 실체는 있으나 형체는 없는 기이하고 신선한, 신비한 영액 같은 물속에서 언어가 탄생한다. 막스 피카르트의 <인간과 말>이 특히 빛을 발하며 우리를 매혹시키는 것은, 그가 '말'을 수가지 자연물(바람, 공기, 돌, 용암, 새, 벌레)로 활물화 하거나, 조형화된 온갖 형상으로 환유하면서다. 그의 메타포들은 범람한다. 자연계와 상상계를, 개념계를 전광석화처럼 이리저리 이동한다. 피카르트는 텅 빈 허공에, 어둡고 푸른 창공에 보이면서도 보이지 않는 수많은 형상들을 조각한다. 말이 보인다. 침묵이 보인다. "순수하게 언어의 관점에서 본다면, 말은 침묵으로부터 튀어나와서, 불현듯 어느 한순간 거기 현존한다. 발생과 현존은 하나다."(49쪽) 피카르트는 언어 역시나 "이미 주어진 것"으로 본다. 엄밀하게 말하면, 이 선험적 언어는 "말과 사물이 낙원의 합일" 속에 머물렀던 때의 언어, 인간의 언어가 아닌 신의 언어, 인간이 잃어버린 언어다. 분리 이전의 세상, 인식의 나무인 선악과 이전의 세상, 실낙원 이전의 세상에서는 언어가 침묵을 내장하고 있었다. 그리스도가 장막을 찢고 무대 위로 튀어나오니, 저 아래 아기 천사들이 심란한 표정을 짓는다. 라파엘로가 넌지시 암시한 것이 그것이다. 탄생이 곧 죽음이라는. 피카르트는 그리스도가 장막을 뚫고 나온 것처럼, 인간의 언어도 미세하고 신선한 얇은 장막을 뚫고 나왔다고 본다. 꽃봉오리는 터졌으므로 시들 일만 남았다. "언어는 말을 하면 할수록 스스로에게서 멀어지며"(86쪽) "오직 무작정 앞으로 나가는 것 이외의 다른 방향을 알지 못하는 언어는 폭력적이다."(30쪽). 피카르트는 침묵을 언어의 반대어가 아닌―이처럼 일차원적인, 저차원적인 상상력이 있을까?―, 언어의 동의어, 아니 언어라는 부분 집합을 포함하는 전체 집합으로 설정한다. 달리 말해, 침묵을 내포한 언어만이 진정한 언어다. 침묵을 내포하지 않은 언어는 잡음어에 불과하다. "공기 중의 파장"이라는 언어가 우리의 가슴 조각 하나 떨게 하지 못한다. 그것은 우리들 언어가 심연을 잃어버렸기 때문이며, 내적인 연속성 없이 외적인 연속성만 계속해서 늘려나가고 있기 때문이다. 피카르트는 이미 <침묵의 세계>(최승자 옮김, 까치글방 펴냄)에서 언어와 침묵의 관계를 이렇게 뚜렷하게 형상화 한 바 있다. "죽은 것으로서가 아니라 살아 있는 태고의 짐승처럼 침묵은 거기 누워 있다. 그 침묵의 넓은 등이 아직 보이기는 하지만, 그 태고의 짐승의 몸 전체가 오늘날의 전반적인 소음의 덤불 속에서 점점 더 깊이 가라앉고 있다. 그 태고의 짐승은 점차적으로 자신의 침묵의 심연 속으로 가라앉고 있다. 그럼에도 불구하고 때로 오늘날의 모든 소음은 다만 그 태고의 짐승, 즉 침묵의 드넓은 등에 붙은 벌레들의 울음소리에 불과한 것 같다." 계시록처럼 읽히는 이 아찔한 문장은 우리가 무엇을 잃어버렸는지 단번에 보여준다. 우리 안에 길게 드러누워 소리 없이 울부짖고 있는 태고의 짐승. 그것이 없거나, 있어도 어찌된 일인지 위로 끌어올리지 못한다. 모리스 블랑쇼가 라스코 동굴벽화에서 영감 받아 환기하고 있는 '거대한 침묵'도 이것이다. 또 파스칼 키냐르는 단말마의 메두사의 입 속으로, 그 자궁 같은 동굴 속으로 후진하는 언어를 상상한다. 키냐르는 벌어진 입 사이로 새어나온 말보다는 "혀끝에서 맴도는 말", 혹은 동굴의 내벽 안으로 다시 들어갔다 겨우 역류하는 언어들만을 사랑한다. 그는 언어는 "반몽 상태에 억류되어 있는" "낮은 목소리의 중얼거림"이어야 한다고 생각한다. '피아노'(약하게)라는 말이 '피아노포르테'라는 말을 대체한 이유를, 사랑한다고 '말하면' 왜 사랑을 잃는지 키냐르는 늘 상기한다. 우리가 "이미 주어진 것"으로, '과거'로, '태고'로 돌아갈 수 없는 것은 명백하다. 그런데 이 발원점과 통하는 방법이 그나마 있다. 발원점에서 너무 멀리 온 우리 부도체가 애써 전도체가 되는 것이다. 자성이 흐르면 발원점과 종착점이라는 양극은 어떻게든 통한다. 부도체에 자성이 흐르게 하려면 뒤를, 지나온 것을 더욱 파야 하는데, 우리는 더욱 앞으로만 질주한다. 막스 피카르트는 우리는 이제 '과잉'에 놀라는 것이 아니라, '과잉의 행위'에 놀란다며 절망한다. "파괴된 말, 말기호 그리고 무제한의 기술은 서로 상응하는 성질이 있다. 단선적인 말기호는 곧장 단선적인 행위와 단선적인 기술로 이어진다."(176쪽) "과잉의 충만이 원인이 아니라, 무제한의 실험으로 놀라움을 양산해보려고 하는 빈곤함이 원인이다."(177쪽) 우리의 잡음어는 "모든 것을 다 말해버리겠다는, 잡음어의 마지막까지 가보겠다는, 그래서 기필코 진짜 말이 다시 돌아오도록 만들겠다는 인간의 절망적 시도"(146쪽)다. 우리는 언어에 지치면 입을 다물 것이다. 그러나 이 '입 다뭄'은 생태적 침묵이 아니다. 그것은 아무것도 발생시키지 못하는 침묵이다. 피카르트는 이제 우리 언어는 '구조'를 갖지 못한 채, '행위'만을 계속해서 유발한다고 폭로한다. 과잉 행위의 반복이란, 정신은 결여된 채, 광인의 행보처럼, 자기 안에 온전히 파고들기보다 자기 밖으로 계속해서, 계속해서 낳아가는 형국이다. 우리는 미친 듯 최대치를 열망하며 계속해서 앞으로만 나아간다. 이러한 진보는 충만이 아니라, 결핍 자체를 초래한다. '선험성'이 '먼저 있는 것', 그러나 상실한 것, 선행하였으나 이미 멀어진 것으로만 환기된다면, 우리는 그의 책 말미에 이르러 절망감에 빠졌을지 모른다. 그런데 이것을 기적적으로 구원하는 것이 온전히 깃든 것으로서의 '전체성'이다. '선험성' 개념과 함께 피카르트의 두 번째 '복음어'가 그것이다. '선험성'이 직선적 상상력으로 파악된다면, '전체성'은 심연 바닥까지 둥글게 파서 다시 휘감으며 올리는 것으로, 천체의 궁륭처럼 연상된다. 과잉되고, 돌출되고, 양각되거나, 도망치고, 물러나고, 음각되고, 이 모든 상대적 뒤죽박죽들을, 언어의 다양성을, 진리의 다양성을 자비로운 풍족함으로 껴안는 전체성. 이것이 내적 발열성, "진실한 엔트로피"다. 진리는 향하지 않고, 깃든다. 우리가 아는 서양적 진리, '베리타스'(veritas)는 하이데거가 복원한 그리스어 '알레테이아'(aletheia),즉 "은폐되지 않은 것" "폭로되고 계시된 것"으로 복기되어 있다. 그런데 막스 피카르트는 '진실된'(verus)이란 어휘는 어원상 고대 북유럽어인 '바라르'(varar), 혹은 고대 고지 독일어인 '바라'(vara)에서 왔음을 명시한다. 이것은 밖으로 드러난 것이 아니라, 안에 온전히 깃들어 있는 '충실', '신의'다. 돌출되고 과잉된 언어 속에서도, 우리가 언어 때문에 전율하기 위해서는, 언어 안으로 온전히 깃들도록 극도로 애쓸 수밖에 없다. 곤궁한 나도, 허무한 나도 가만히 내 안에 침잠할 때 그나마 힘이 다시 솟아나는 것처럼. 류재화 번역가 (mal@pressian.com)

2013년 7월 29일 월요일

Michel Foucault - The Order of Things - Part 1

Michel Foucault - The Order of Things - Part 1


The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences by Michel Foucault.
Original Title: Les Mots et les choses [words and things]. Published in French in 1966, and in English in 1970.
I feel a little stuck trying to summarize this book. On the one hand, there is a vast amount of very specific information about some very important things. On the other hand, one could basically sum up his point in a couple of sentences, do a few of those clapping/sliding of hands together things they do in the movies when there is something dramatically dusty that needed finishing being finished, and be done with it. While typing up my notes from the book I had the same feeling I’d had while reading it, that I could have just read the second half and through it understood the whole first without having had to suffer through reading the blasted thing. I was also reminded of the fact that Foucault is freakishly brilliant, a fantastic writer, uses more semicolons than anyone else in history, and can be a total bore when he’s not being thrilling. As you’ll see in my notes on Heterologiesl’autre Michel de le examination de Theory & Method, Monsieur de Certeau, totally agrees. Anyway, Foucault wrote a big ol’ book about how everything in the world changed and that book did a pretty goddamn good job of changing everything about how people talk about the world.
So, I’m going to try to do a combo chapter-by-chapter kind of a thing as well as a sort of a bullet-pointed highlights reel/ talking points list. Hope that works.
Main Keywords/ Themes:
Order:
“at one and the same time, that which is given in things as their inner law, the hidden network that determines the way they confront once another, and also that which has no existence except in the gird created by a glance, an examination, a language; and it is only in the blank spaces of this grid that order manifests itself in depth as though already there, waiting in silence for the moment of its expression (Foucault, xx).
Archaeology:
The archaeological level of investigation is the level of thinking in a project which is concerned with what made something possible (Foucault, 31).
Resemblance:
Resemblance is the way in which, as mentioned previously, “the space where one speaks” and “the space where one looks… fold one over the other as though they were equivalents (Foucault, 9-10).”
Episteme:
In any given culture and at any given moment, there is always only one episteme that defines the conditions of possibility of all knowledge, whether expressed in a theory or silently invested in a practice (Foucault, 168).
Secondary Keywords/ Themes:
General Grammar/ Philology
Natural History/ Biology
Wealth/ Political Economy
Preface:
Order exists in every culture and is,
at one and the same time, that which is given in things as their inner law, the hidden network that determines the way they confront once another, and also that which has no existence except in the gird created by a glance, an examination, a language; and it is only in the blank spaces of this grid that order manifests itself in depth as though already there, waiting in silence for the moment of its expression (Foucault, xx).
In other words, order, is the relationship between things and what they are called that is so deeply imbedded it gets taken as natural, something within to be brought out, rather than that which is decided or imposed. Foucault continues by explaining that,
The fundamental codes of a culture – those governing its language, its schemas of perception, its exchanges, its techniques, its values, the hierarchy of its practices – establish for every man, from the very first, the empirical orders with which he will be dealing and within which he will be at home (Foucault, xx).
These are ordering codes. While, “at the other extremity of thought, there are the scientific theories or the philosophical interpretations which explain why order exists in general, what universal law it obeys, what principle can account for it, and why this particular order has been established and not some other (Foucault, xx).” Or, what he calls,reflections upon order itself. So, Order is both the code that governs who we interact with the world and the ways we devise of thinking about those codes.
Foucault says that his intent in The Order of Things (from here-on-out,OT) is try to analyze the “pure experience of order and of its modes of being” that occurs between ordering codes and reflections on order itself which he says exists in all cultures. His purpose is to show how this experience has developed since the sixteenth-century. As he lays out in the preface, he is, then, particularly focused on “language as it has been spoken, natural creatures as they have been perceived and grouped together, and exchanges as they have been practiced” in other words, “in what way, then, our culture has made manifest the existence of order, and how, to the modalities of that order, the exchanges owed their laws, the living being their constants, the words their sequence and their representative value” and the ways in which these “modalities of order have been recognized, posited, linked with space and time, in order to create the positive basis of knowledge as we find it employed in grammar and philology, innatural history and biology [and] in the study of wealth andpolitical economy (Foucault, xxi).” These, what we would now call “disciplines,” grammar, philology, natural history, biology, wealth, and political economy, are where Foucault focuses his inquiry.
As he says in his preface, this is project does not belong to any history of ideas or science, it is rather,
An inquiry whose aim is to rediscover on what basis knowledge and theory became possible; within what space of order knowledge was constituted; on the basis of what historical a priori, and in the element of what positivity, ideas could appear, sciences be established, experience be reflected in philosophies, rationalities be formed, only, perhaps, to dissolve and vanish soon afterwards (Foucault, xxii).
The conditions that make knowledge possible, and how those conditions, and thus knowledge, change. That is, as ever, what is of interest to Foucault in this book. His methodology once again beingarchaeological (more on this to come shortly), he seeks to investigate the threshold between Classical knowledge (knowledge prior to the sixteenth century) and that served to “separate us from Classical though and constitute our modernity (Foucault, xxiv).” On this constitutive threshold, as he calls it, first appears “the strange figure of knowledge called man and revealed a space proper to the human sciences.”[1]
Okay, so, I could stop here and you’d already know why people think this book is important. Obviously, it matters how and why Foucault took on this project. He’s not really getting at something terribly different than he does in his histories of institutionalized power like mental hospitals (Madness and Civilization, 1961 and Birth of the Clinic, 1963), or prison (Discipline and Punish, 1975), or sexuality (History of Sexuality, parts 1-3, 1976 -1984) but the project’s comprehensive combination of detail and expansiveness does set it apart and you can see why it set his career off to run the way that it did. The archaeological method he uses is then articulated fully in the next book he publishes after OT, appropriately titled, The Archeology of Knowledge, released in France in 1969. So, it is worth taking a minute now to make sure it’s clear what Foucault means by “archaeological” in this book.
The archaeological level of investigation is the level of thinking in a project which is concerned with what made something possible (Foucault, 31). Archaeology “can give an account of the existence” in terms of “conditions and a prioris established in time,” it can be used to write “a history of knowledge… on the basis of what was contemporaneous with it” but “not in terms of reciprocal influence (Foucault, 208).” In other words, archeology is a way of studying what happened at a time to make something possible, not a way of saying why or how that thing came to be or how it might have come to influence other things. Or, in still other word, archaeology “must examine each event in terms of its own evident arrangement (Foucault, 218).” The emphasis here ought to be on the idea that the arrangements (conditions) around (of) an event that can be considered archaeologically are only those that are evident, as in discernibly present at the time of the event.
Part 1
Chapter 1: Las Meninas
The first chapter is about a painting by Diego Velázquez from 1656 called “Las Meninas” or “The Maids of Honour” (incidentally, housed in the same Museo del Prado in Madrid as Bosch’s “Garden of Earthly Delights” with which de Certeau’s Mystic Fable was so interested – who wants to go on a field trip with me?). I won’t say much about the chapter, other than that it is Foucault’s way in to talking about the relationship between things and what they are called, and the model on which this relationship operated in Classical knowledge, resemblance. You see both what interests him about the painting and what his agenda is in using it in this passage:
And the proper name, in this particular context, is merely an artifice: it gives us a finger to point with, in other words, to pass surreptitiously form the space where one speaks to the space where on looks; in other words, to fold one over the other as though they were equivalents. But if one wishes to keep the relation of language to vision open, if one wishes to treat their incompatibility as a starting-point for speech instead of as an obstacle to be avoided, so as to stay as close as possible to both, then one must erase those proper names and preserve the infinity of the task. It is perhaps through the medium of this grey, anonymous language, always over-meticulous and repetitive because too broad, that the painting may, little by little, release its illuminations (Foucault, 9-10).
It is clear here, that for Foucault, at stake in this investigation of how words used to be matched to things, and how that relationship changed, is a declared interest in opening up space where the relationship could shift once more.
Chapter 2: The Prose of the World
This is where we start to get into what Foucault means by resemblanceand what its significance is in Classical knowledge. Resemblance is the way in which, as mentioned previously, “the space where one speaks” and “the space where one looks… fold one over the other as though they were equivalents (Foucault, 9-10).” Here, he elaborates, “The universe was folded in upon itself: the earth echoing the sky, faces seeing themselves reflected in the starts, and plants holding within their stems the secrets that were of use to man (Foucault, 17),” he goes on to state what is already becoming clear, that “The main point is man: he stands in proportion to the heavens, just as he does to animals and plants, and as he does also to the earth, to metals, to stalactites or storms (Foucault, 22).” This was the kind of resemblance, man finding in the world a reflection of his needs thus served, that “up to the end of the sixteenth century… played a constructive role in the knowledge of Western culture. It was resemblance that largely guided exegesis and interpretation of texts; it was resemblance that organized the play of symbols, made possible knowledge of things visible and invisible, and controlled the art of representing them (Foucault, 22).”
Since the world of resemblances can “can only be a world of signs (Foucault, 26)” one must be sure to understand what signs are and how they are read in this Classical mode. In its raw, historical sixteenth-century being, language is not an arbitrary system; it has been set down in the world and forms a part of it (Foucault, 35).” At that time, “things themselves were seen to “hide and manifest their own enigma like language” and words were seen to “offer themselves to men as things to be deciphered.” Foucault describes this relationship in more theoretical language in the following way:
Let us call the totality of the learning and skills that enable one to make the signs speak and to discover their meaning, hermeneutics; let us call the totality of the learning and skills that enable one to distinguish the location of the signs, to define what constitutes them as signs, and to know how and by what laws they are linked, semiology: the sixteenth century superimposed hermeneutics and semiology in the form of similitude. To search for a meaning is to bring to light a resemblance. To search for the law governing signs is to discover the things that are alike. The grammar of beings is an exegesis of these things. And what the language they speak has to tell us is quite simply what the syntax is that binds them together. The nature of things, their coexistence, the way in which they are linked together and communicate is nothing other than their resemblance (Foucault, 29).
Or, in other, more approachable language, one could understand it this way, as when he writes of the world as it was understood in the sixteenth century,
…it was all legenda –things to be read. But the reason for this was not that they preferred the authority of men to the precision of an unprejudiced eye, but that nature, in itself, is an unbroken tissue of words and signs, of accounts and characters, of discourse and forms (Foucault, 39-40).
Nature itself was thought of differently, as something to be read, that could be read. Foucault then argues that,
from the seventeenth century, one began to ask how a sign could be linked to what it signified. A question to which the classical period was to reply by the analysis of representation; and to which modern thought was to reply by the analysis of meaning and signification. But given the fact itself, language was never to be anything more than a particular case of representation (for the Classics) or of signification (for us). The profound kinship of language with the world was thus dissolved (Foucault, 43).
Okay, so that’s resemblance. Remember this later when we get to the 17th century and how it all comes undid.
Chapter 3: Representing
The first part of this chapter is about how Don Quixote is the
first modern work of literature because in it we see the cruel reason of identities and differences make endless sport of signs and similitudes; because in it language breaks off its old kinship with things and enters into that lonely sovereignty from which it will reappear, in its separated state, only as literature; because it marks the point where resemblance enters an age which is, from the point of view of resemblance, one of madness and imagination. Once similitude and signs are sundered from each other, two experiences can be established and two characters appear face to face (Foucault, 49).
This part is a lot of fun, but I think much more relevant to our present purposes, is the following bit of the chapter’s second part, called “Order,” which so far as I’m concerned, basically spells out the main questions guiding the book:
Generally speaking, what does it mean, no longer being able to think a certain thought? or to introduce a new thought.
Discontinuity – the fact that within the space of a few years a culture sometimes ceases to think as it had been thinking up till then and beings to think other things in a new way – probably begins with an erosion from outside, form that space which is, for thought, on the other side, but in which it has never ceased to think from the very beginning. Ultimately, the problem that presents itself is that of the relations between thought and culture; how is it that thought has a place in the space of the world, that it has its origin there, and that it never ceases, in this place or that, to being anew? Foucault, 50
The place of thought in culture, how it gets there, what form it takes, and how and why its forms and positions changes when they do. That’s really what Foucault is after. He lays these questions before the reader just as he begins to talk about the first major shift in Western thought that is of concern here, the one from resemblance to representation which happens through processes of comparison.
Because comparison becomes the way by which people relate things to things, and words to words, and words about things to other words about things,
the activity of the mind… will no longer consist indrawing things together, in setting out on a quest for everything that might reveal some sort of kinship, attraction or secretly shared nature within them [resemblance], but, on the contrary, indiscriminating, that is, in establishing their identities, then the inevitability of the connections with all the successive degrees of series (Foucault, 55).
Of this difference in thought (“the activity of the mind”), Foucault says,
All this was of the greatest consequence to Western thought. resemblance, which had for long been the fundamental category of knowledge – both the form and the content of what we know – became dissociated in an analysis based on terms of identity and difference; moreover, whether indirectly by the intermediary or measurement, or directly and, as it were, on the same footing, comparison became a function of order; and, lastly, comparison ceased to fulfill the function of revealing how the world is ordered, since it was now accomplished according to the order laid down by thought, progressing naturally from the simple to the complex. As a result, the entire episteme of Western culture found its fundamental arrangements modified (Foucault, 54).
In an epistemic system of representation, “to know is to discriminate, history and science will become separated from one another (Foucault, 55).” In other words, “the written word ceases to be included among the signs and forms of truth… it is the task of words to translate that truth if they can; but they no longer have the right to be considered a mark of it. Language has withdrawn from the midst of beings themselves and has entered a period of transparency and neutrality (Foucault, 56).” Or, in still more clear words, “It is no longer the task of knowledge to dig out the ancient Word from the unknown places where it may be hidden; its job now is to fabricate a language, and to fabricate it well – so that, as an instrument of analysis and combination, it will really be the language of calculation (Foucault, 62-63).”
Here, Foucault turns to imagination, an says that, “without imagination, there would be no resemblance between things. The double requisite is patent. There must be, in the things represented, the insistent murmur of resemblance; there must be, in the representation, the perpetual possibility of imaginative recall (Foucault, 69).”
The point here has been to draw a picture of the two ends of the spectrum of how people thought about the world in the sixteenth century. At one of the spectrum is resemblance, I which “simple natures” (based in resemblance) are ordered according to mathesis, and at the other end is the taxonomic ordering of “complex natures” (based in representation) (Foucault, 72). “Thus, at the two extremities of the Classical episteme, we have a mathesis as the science of calculable order and a genesis as the analysis of the constitution of orders on the basis of empirical series (Foucault, 73).” Furthermore, “it is patent that these three notions – mathesis, taxinomia, genesis– designate not so much separate domains as a solid grid of kinships that defines the general configuration of knowledge in the Classical age (Foucault, 74).”
Chapter 4: Speaking
Chapter four picks up where three left off, but clearer:
From an extreme point of view, one might say that language in the Classical era does not exist. But that it functions: its whole existence is located in its representative role, is limited precisely to that role and finally exhausts it. Language has no other locus, no other value, than in representation; in the hollow it has been able to form. …
Henceforth, the primary Text is effaced, and with it, the entire, inexhaustible foundation of the words whose mute being was inscribed in things; all that remains is representation, unfolding in the verbal signs that manifest it, and hence becoming discourse(Foucault, 79).
Importantly, here Foucault also clarifies why language, of all sign systems, is of such primary importance:
What distinguishes language from all other signs and enables it to play a decisive role in representation is, therefore, not so much that it is individual or collective, natural or arbitrary, but that it analyses representation according to a necessarily successive order; the sounds, in fact, can be articulated only one by one; language cannot represent thought, instantly, in its totality; it is bound to arrange it, part by part, in a linear order (Foucault, 82).
Language orders by way of general grammar, which you may remember, was one of the main modalities of knowledge listed in the preface. According to Foucault, “General grammar is the study of verbal order in its relation to the simultaneity that it is its task to represent. Its proper object is therefore neither thought nor any individual language, but discourse, understood as a sequence of verbal signs (Foucault, 83).”
This chapter’s overall intention was, “to determine in what conditions language could become the object of a period’s knowledge, and between what limits this epistemological domain developed. Not to calculate the common denominator of men’s opinions, but to define what made it possible for opinions about language – whatever the opinions may have been – to exist at all (Foucault, 119).” Again, the conditions that made possible this thinking. Thus, Foucault concludes that,
If language exists, it is because below the level of identities and differences there is the foundation provided by continuities, resemblances, repetitions, and natural criss-crossings. Resemblance, excluded from knowledge since the early seventeenth century, still constitutes the outer edge of language: the ring surrounding the domain of that which can be analysed, reduced to order, and known. Discourse dissipates the murmur, but without it, it could not speak (Foucault, 120).
In other words, Classical knowledge was thought in different ways, but it was fully rooted in the order of resemblances.
Chapter 5: Classifying
This chapter gives us one of the other really big points of the book which is that,
Historians want to write histories of biology in the eighteenth century; but they do not realize that biology did not exist then, and that the pattern of knowledge that has been familiar to us for a hundred and fifty years is not valid for a previous period. And that, if biology was unknown, there was a very simple reason for it: that life itself did not exist. All that existed was living beings, which were viewed through a grid of knowledge constituted by natural history. Foucault, 127-28
Natural History, another of the modalities listed at the beginning, “is nothing more than the nomination of the visible (Foucault, 132)” which “finds its locus in the gap that is now opened up between things and words (Foucault, 130).” History had to become Natural (Foucault, 128) and thus, “What came surreptitiously into being between the age of the theatre and that of the catalogue was not the desire for knowledge, but a new way of connecting things both to the eye and to discourse. A new way of making history (Foucault, 131).” More specifically, classification, which Foucault says is the “constituent problem of natural history… took up its position historically, and in a necessary fashion, between a theory of the markand a theory of the organism (Foucault, 145).
According to Foucault, natural history produces a “discourse of nature” which is not “ a question of a more general rationality imposing identical forms upon grammatical thinking and upon taxinomia. Rather, it concerns a fundamental arrangement of knowledge, which orders the knowledge of beings so as to make it possible to represent them in a system of name (Foucault, 157).” He explains that,
Things and words are very strictly interwoven: nature is posited only through the grid of denominations, and – though without such names it would remain mute and invisible – it glimmers far off beyond them, continuously present on the far side of this grid, which nevertheless presents it to our knowledge and renders it visible only when wholly spanned by language (Foucault, 160).
Thus, he concludes importantly, that,
We must therefore not connect natural history, as it was manifested during the Classical period, with a philosophy of life, albeit an obscure and still faltering one. In reality, it is interwoven with a theory of words. Natural history is situated both before and after language; it decomposes the language of everyday life, but in order to recompose it and discover what has made it possible through the blind resemblances of imagination; it criticizes language, but in order to reveal its foundation. If natural history reworks language and attempts to perfect it, this is because it also delves down into the origin of language.Foucault, 161
Okay, so, you see how he’s building this whole “relationship betweenmots and choses, yes? Good, okay, onward! Chapter 6 is going to tell us about the last Classical term in those pairs of modalities (grammar/ philology, natural history/ biology, wealth/ political economy) and then we’ll get on to the second part of the book which deals with how we get to those second terms in the pairings.
Chapter 6: Exchanging
Chapter six is about the Classical concept of wealth, which, like general grammar and natural history, is thought in resemblance and representation. Or, in Foucault’s words,
Whatever its economic determinations and consequences, mercantilism, when questioned at the level of the episteme, appears as the slow, long effort to bring reflection upon prices and money into alignment with the analysis of representations. It was responsible for the emergence of a domain of ‘wealth’ connected to that which, at about the same time, was opened up to natural history, and likewise to that which unfolded before general grammar (Foucault, 180).
Here the mode of representational resemblance is that of exchange, “In other words, in order that one thing can represent another in an exchange, they must both exist as bearers of value; and yet value exists only within the representation (actual or possible), that is, within the exchange or the exchangeability (Foucault, 190).”
We start to see how all of this connects when Foucault explains that,
With language, the system of signs is passively accepted in its imperfection, and only an art can rectify it: the theory of language is immediately prescriptive. Natural history establishes itself a system of signs for denoting beings, and that is why it is a theory. Wealth is a system of signs that are created, multiplied, and modified by men; the theory of wealth is linked throughout to politics (Foucault, 205).
Thus,
Philology, biology, and political economy were established, not in the places formerly occupied by general grammar, natural history and the analysis of wealth, but in an area where those forms of knowledge did not exist, in the space they left blank, in the deep gaps that separated their broad theoretical segments and that were filled with the murmur of the ontological continuum. The object of knowledge in the nineteenth century is formed in the very place where the Classical plenitude of being has fallen silent. Foucault, 207
And, “Structuralism is not a new method; it is the awakened and troubled consciousness of modern thought” which was produced by “the essential problem of Classical thought” which,
lay in the relation between name and order: how to discover a nomenclature that would be a taxonomy, or again, how to establish a system of signs that would be transparent to the continuity of being. What modern though is to throw fundamentally into question is the relation of meaning with the form of truth and the form of being: in the firmament of our reflection there reigns a discourse – a perhaps inaccessible discourse – which would at the same time be an ontology and a semantics.
Thus, Foucault concludes the first part of the book by bringing everything together in the following explanation:
The whole Classical system of order, the whole of that great taxinomia that makes it possible to know things by means of the system of their identities, is unfolded within the space that is opened up inside representation when representation represents itself, that area where being and the Same reside. Language is simply the representation of words; nature is simply the representation of beings; need is simply the representation of needs. The end of Classical though – and of the episteme that made general grammar, natural history, and the science of wealth possible – will coincide with the decline of representation, or rather with the emancipation of language, of the living being, and of need, with regard to representation. Foucault, 209
From here, we go back to literature. First Borges (did I mention that, that it all starts with Borges? Probably not. You just assume that, right? Important theory book, the first pages must be about Borges. Okay, good), then Cervantes, now the Marquis de Sade. Are things getting hotter in here, or is it just the Enlightenment finally arriving half way through the book? Right, sorry, anyway, “Sade’s characters correspond to him at the other end of the Classical age, at the moment of its decline. It is no longer the ironic triumph of representation over resemblance; it is the obscure and repeated violence of desire beating at the limits of representation (Foucault, 210). Hawt.



[1] Gil Anidjar has done some thinking recently on “the strange figure of knowledge called man” that appears in OT, if not also, as it does according to Foucault, in the sixteenth century. Anidjar’s most recent (Summer 2011) Critical Inquirypiece is a good place to look if you want to know what he thinks of this idea, and of the book in general. If by some chance that is a perspective that interests you, the article, calledThe Meaning of Life, can be found here: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/660988.

《조르지오 아감벤의 호모 사케르와 히멘》

서문을 보면 아주 자주 언급되는 인물이 있다. 바로 미셸 푸코다. 그의 의도는 분명하다. '호모 사케르'를 미셸 푸코의 '생권력'에 상응하는 렉시콘으로 설정하고 싶었던 것이다.

그러나 조르지오 아감벤은 단 하나의 철학적 기제를 지닌 빈곤한 철학자에 불과하다. 무수한 언어학적 자료들은 끊이없이 영어의 swear처럼 '신성'과 '모독'을 동일 어휘소로 쓰고 있다. 여성의 출혈은 아주 정교하게 몸이 병들거나 폐경기를 지나지 않는 한 다이이나의 바이오 리듬의 지배를 받는다. 저주받을 다이아나의 하혈이 데페랑스를 하면 그 욕지기나는 핏물이 이 땅의 보잘 것 없는 호모 사케르들의 히멘 사이로 줄줄 흘러 내리는 것이다. 우리는 다이아나의 패드에 존재하는 모세 혈관이다.

플라톤은 '자벌레'(geometer)에게만 아카데미아 입학을 허락했다. 구더기(maggot)는 '맛'으로 이어진다. 특히 정열의 나라 스페인과 추운 철학의 영토인 독일에서 사용하는 국어 사전들은 부드러움, 맛, 그리고 구더기를 동일 어근으로 처리하고 있다.

태호복희가 들고 나타난 '자'(a ruler)를 보자. 거의 모든 서양 언어가 여인의 출혈, 즉 히멘이라는 결혼의 신의 파열에 이은 이 땅의 미세한 호모 사케르들에게 할당되는 '월경'과 태호복희가 들고 나온 '자'를 동일 어휘소(lexeme)로 처리한다.

소크라테스와 플라톤의 '페리아고그'(periagogue)는 '회전형 카타르시스 분출 공간'에 불과하다. 'PERI'는 회전이요, 'AGOGUE'는 화장실이다. 아카데미아라는 말에 그리 가슴 뛰는 흥분을 느끼지 말지어다. '아카'는 스페인어로 분뇨에 불과하다. '데미'는 절반성이다. '아카'는 일본어로 아주 더러운 것을 말한다.

자, 우리는 어느 누구도 자유 의지에 따른 생리조차 못 하는 다이아나의 '검은 구멍'(trou noir)의 모세 혈관이다. 아카도 나온다. 그곳에서 잠시 후 구더기가 나온다. 중국의 창조 신화는 말한다. 싸늘하게 식어가는 '반고'의 시체에서 구더기가 나오고 그 존재가 바로 사람이 된다. 일본의 신들도 프로이트와 칼 융의 발톱을 벗어나지 못 한다. 황천의 이자나미의 얼굴에는 구더기가 드글드글 하다. 황급히 놀란 이자나기는 도망을 치고야 만다.

마지막으로 조르지오 아감벤은 미셸 푸코의 '생권력', 즉 신을 살해하려 했다. 겉으로는 끝없이 '배제와 포획'의 양가성을 반복하면서 그들을 호모 사케르라 정의하면서 마음껏 죽여도 되는 존재, 즉 '치외법권' 지역에 놓인 희생자로만 정의한다. 역시 자크 데리다와 같은 균형감은 떨어진다. 내가 말하는 '사케르'는 일본어다. '찢어버리기'와 '피하기'라는 뜻을 동시에 전달하니 자크 데리다의 히멘을 닮았다. 일본어는 '히메'나 '히메루' 등에서도 처녀성과 차이와 반복을 정확하게 드러내고 있다. 참으로 신기한 일이다.

우리는 페르몬을 통해 백미터 밖에 있는 반란을 꿈꾸는 여전사들을 그대로 죽여 버리고야 마는 여왕 개미의 몸 안에 있는 체세포에 불과하다. 히멘옵테라, 페리아고그, 반고와 이자나미의 구더기, 데페랑스, 그리고 사케루!

지젝(Slavoj Žižek, 1949-, 옛 유고슬라비아의 슬로베니아)은『신체 없는 기관, 들뢰즈와 결과들』(김지훈 ‧ 박제철 ‧ 이성민 옮김, 도서출판 b, 2006 / 원전 2004)에서 신체없는 기관을 상징적 남근으로 본다.

"남근은 내가 걸치고, 내 신체에 부착되지만 결코 내 신체의 ‘유기적 일부’가 되지 않는, 즉 비통합적인, 과잉적인 보충으로 영원히 튀어나와 있는 ‘신체 없는 기관’이다." (173쪽)

잘 했다. 실제가 아닌 상징, 역시 자크 라캉의 후예답다. 그 상징적 팔루스, 즉 여성 루프가 이쪽 '시체'(프랑스어와 일본어의 '카바네'가 형성하는 이항결합성을 보라. 프랑스어의 '카바네'는 하이데거의 존재의 집이다. 스위스 산장의 오두막이다. 천개의 고원인가? 일본어의 '카바네'는 정확하게 삶과 죽음을 동일 음소로 처리하고 있다. 일본어의 '아루'는 삶과 여행, 그리고 죽음을 글쓰기라는 의미소까지 함께 묶고 있는 언어 존재의 뫼비우스의 띠다. 이 끈은 다이아나의 배변과 하혈을 통해 이 죽음의 공간에 보리(voirie)를 뿌린다. 지젝의 '기관'은 질 들레즈를 거쳐 구체적으로 어떤 결과물을 이 매트릭스같은 불모의 땅에 흩뿌린 것일까?

조르조 아감벤(Giorgio Agamben, 1942-, 이탈리아)의 『호모 사케르, 주권 권력과 벌거벗은 생명』(Homo Sacer, Il potere sovrano e la nuda vita, 1995 / 국역본. 박진우 옮김, 새물결, 2008), 수정이 필요하다.

페스투스는 논집 『말의 의미에 대해』의 ‘성산’(聖山)이라는 항목에서 발전시킨 조르지오 아감벤의 호모 사케르에 대한 인식을 살펴 보자.

"호모 사케르란 사람들이 범죄자로 판정한 자를 말한다. 그를 희생물로 바치는 것은 허용하지 않지만 그를 죽이더라도 살인죄로 처벌받지는 않는다." (155-6쪽)

"호모 사케르 역시 희생물로 바칠 수 없음의 형태로 신에게 바쳐지며 또한 죽여도 괜찮다는 형태로 공동체에 포함된다. 희생물로 바칠 수는 없지만 죽여도 되는 생명이 바로 신성한 생명이다." (174-5쪽)

노모스는 퓌지스, 즉 자연과 대비되는바 규범, 즉 법이다. 벌거벗은 존재들은 과연 누구일까? 왜 이브는 벌거벗음을 알고 치욕을 느낀 것일까? 이브를 인류의 반고로 설정하는 알레고리를 일부 수용해보자. 우리는 호모 사케르의 후손이다. 그 습하고 더러운 냄새나는 시궁창에서 쓰레기(voirie)가 이 불모의 땅으로 떨어진다.조르지오 아감벤도 살짝 이런 진실을 알고 있기는 했다. 퓌지스에서 노모스로 벌거벗겨진 채 하이데거의 피투성이의 이름으로 한 방울, 한 방울 떨어진다.

"만일 오늘날에는 명백하게 규정된 하나의 호모 사케르의 형상이 더 이상 존재하지 않는다고 말한다면, 그것은 아마도 우리 모두가 잠재적인 호모 사케르들이기 때문일 것이다."(232-2쪽)
















2013년 7월 14일 일요일

『정신현상학』(精神現象學, Phänomenologie des Geistes, 1807)

『정신현상학』(精神現象學, 1807)

Phänomenologie des Geistes



헤겔의 언어학을 비롯한 변증법에 대해 제대로 공부를 시작하며 글을 남깁니다. 글을 전개하는 도중 드러나는 제 고유의 해석학에 대해서는 혹시라도 검색을 통해 이 블로그에 접속하는 (예비) 학자들에게 부탁드리는데, 소중한 개인적인 시간을 할애하여 진행하는 연구이니 그 결과물에 대해서는 공식적인 저널에 발표한 지문과 동등한 대우를 부탁드립니다. 최근에는 온라인에서도 많은 저널들이 발표되는 것으로 알고 있습니다. 개인적인 연구라 할지라도 공개적으로 구체적인 문자나 음성, 영상 등으로 발표된 것은 그 발표자에게 명확히 소유권이 있습니다. 아주 오랜 시간이 걸릴 연구이기에 더더욱 이 발표 공간을 존중받고 싶습니다.

어느 사이에 위의 표지로 출간된 헤겔의 생각들이 그의 머릿속에서 외부로 등장한 지 200년이 넘었군요. 무수한 철학자들과 마찬가지로 그 역시 순수한 이성적, 혹은 감성적 직관만으로 엄청난 '진리'들을 쏟아냈다고 봅니다. 그래서 그 분들의 정신 세계를 공부하는 동시에 기존에 진행하던 연구의 결과들을 체계적인 틀 안에서 철학자들의 생각과 접목하기 위해 이 블로그를 만들게 되었습니다. 

저는 철학에 대해 잘은 모릅니다. 그러나 언어와 상당히 밀접한 관계가 있다는 점은 확신합니다. 부족한 지식이지만 대략적으로 알려진 헤겔의 주장의 개요부터 살펴보도록 하겠습니다. 


헤겔((Georg Wihelm Hegel)의 『정신현상학』(精神現象學, Phänomenologie des Geistes, 1807)의 키워드 중 하나는 언어입니다. 의식의 자기 모순 봉착과 새로운 대상으로의 이행, 이에 수반하는 필연적인 붕괴와 이행의 배경에 언어가 존재한다고 주장합니다. 그리고 그 사이에는 '악과 악의 용서'가 중요하게 자리잡는 것이지요. 자기를 외화(外化)하여(= 분열하여) 타자를 사유의 대상으로 삼고 반성을 통해 그것이 자기 안으로 귀환했을 때 우리는 나의 실체를 조금 더 잘 파악할 수 있으며, 우리의 의식은 고양된다고 봅니다. 진리는 이렇게 자신을 끊임없이(죽을 때까지) 생성하는 과정이며 타자가 된 자기는 매개체라 여깁니다. 그리고 자신으로 돌아와 현실적 존재가 되는 것이 진리라고 합니다. 그리고 즉자는 추상적 보편자, 즉 보편적이되 추상적이며 아직 매개체 운동이 시작되기 전이라고 주장합다. 

  • 즉자가 사유의 대상이 되면 '쪼개짐'이 생긴다. 순수한 부정성이다. 
  • 대자적 대상이 내 안으로 귀환, 혹은 반성하여 나와 하나가 된다. 
  • 실체는 물자체(Ding an sich)다. 자아에서 실체로 이동한다. 따라서 실체가 주체다. 
  • 헤겔의 '현존'과 '표상'은 감각적으로, 그리고 직접적으로 주어진 현상에 불과하다. 



惡은 소리의 분출이 아닐까요? 오브제 아(亞)일 가능성이 있다고 봅니다. 제가 정확히 이해한 것인지 모르겠지만, 지금까지 파악한 바로는 헤겔의 정신의 현상은 바로 질 들뢰즈의《차이와 반복》(Différence et répétition. 1968)을 연상시키는군요.

헤겔이 『정신현상학』(精神現象學, Phänomenologie des Geistes)에서 가장 먼저 사용한 단어는 무엇일까요? 누구나 그러하듯 저술물은 '서문'으로 시작합니다. 그런데 아주 묘하게도 독일어의 서문은 vorrede이며, vorreden은 '그럴싸한 거짓말을 하다'가 되네요. 니체의 은폐일까요? 독일어의 복수형 만드는 법을 한 번 봅시다. 

1. 어간에 움라우트를 부여하고 어미에 '~er을 붙이는 유형: das Buch → die Bücher
2. 어간에 움라우트만 붙는 유형: der Apfel  → die Äpfel    
3. 어미에 -e만 붙이는 유형: der Hund → die Hunde
4. 어미에 -en만 붙이는 유형: die Frau  → die Frauen
5. 어미에 -n만 붙이는 유형: die Karotte → die Karotten 
6. 어미에 -s만 붙이는 유형: Auto나 Bus 등 외래어   
7. 단복수 형태가 같은 유형: dar Mädchen → die Mädchen. 

대략적으로 가장 빈도가 높은 어미를 본다면 '엔'(-en)이로군요. 그냥 '에'(-e)만 발현되기도 하고 '엔'(-n)만 나오기도 하고, 전부 등장한 '엔'(-en)이 되기도 하고요. 

그런데 묘하게 독일어의 복수형 정관사는 영어의 '죽음'을 가리키는 die로군요. 하이데거의 말처럼 이쪽이 죽음의 공간일까요? 원형이 헤겔의 '쪼개짐'을 거쳐 분할이 되면, 즉 '복수형'이 되면 죽는군요. 질 들뢰즈와 펠릭스 가타리의 ' n-1 분열'이 사실 리비도의 공간으로의 진입이 되겠네요. 삶과 죽음의 향기는 이렇게 한꺼번에 어우러지면서 우주가 형성되었나 봅니다. 

언어가 장난꾸러기처럼 '은폐'를 한 것 같습니다. 분명히 제가 가진 독일어 사전에는 'vorreden'이 '그럴싸하게 거짓말을 하다'라는 동사로 의미소가 출력되어 있습니다. 그러나 만일 하이데거가 분명하게 그의 저술물에서 언급한 '메타 언어'가 있다면 이런 설명이 그쪽의 사전에 존재할 가능성도 있지 않을까요? 


vorrede 거짓말. pl. vorreden.



G.W.F. Hegel
  
Phänomenologie des Geistes
  
Vorrede
 
Eine Erklärung, wie sie einer Schrift in einer Vorrede nach der Gewohnheit vorausgeschickt wird über den Zweck, den der Verfasser sich in ihr vorgesetzt, sowie über die Veranlassungen und das Verhältnis, worin er sie zu andern frühern oder gleichzeitigen Behandlungen desselben Gegenstandes zu stehen glaubt scheint bei einer philosophischen Schrift nicht nur überflüssig, sondern um der Natur der Sache willen sogar unpassend und zweckwidrig zu sein. Denn wie und was von Philosophie in einer Vorrede zu sagen schicklich wäre etwa eine historische Angabe der Tendenz und des Standpunkts, des allgemeinen Inhalts und der Resultate, eine Verbindung von hin und her sprechenden Behauptungen und Versicherungen über das Wahre , kann nicht für die Art und Weise gelten, in der die philosophische Wahrheit darzustellen sei. Auch weil die Philosophie wesentlich im Elemente der Allgemeinheit ist, die das Besondere in sich schließt, so findet bei ihr mehr als bei andern Wissenschaften der Schein statt, als ob in dem Zwecke oder den letzten Resultaten die Sache selbst und sogar in ihrem vollkommenen Wesen ausgedrückt wäre, gegen welches die Ausführung eigentlich das Unwesentliche sei. In der allgemeinen Vorstellung hingegen, zum Beispiel was Anatomie sei, etwa die Kenntnis der Teile des Körpers nach ihrem unlebendigen Dasein betrachtet, ist man überzeugt, die Sache selbst, den Inhalt dieser Wissenschaft, noch nicht zu besitzen, sondern außerdem um das Besondere sich bemühen zu müssen. Ferner ist bei einem solchen Aggregate von Kenntnissen, das den Namen Wissenschaft nicht mit Recht führt, eine Konversation über Zweck und dergleichen Allgemeinheiten nicht von der historischen und begrifflosen Weise verschieden, worin von dem Inhalte selbst, diesen Nerven, Muskeln und so fort, gesprochen wird. Bei der Philosophie hingegen würde die Ungleichheit entstehen, daß von einer solchen Weise Gebrauch gemacht, und diese doch von ihr selbst als unfähig, die Wahrheit zu fassen, aufgezeigt würde.
 
So wird auch durch die Bestimmung des Verhältnisses, das ein philosophisches Werk zu andern Bestrebungen über denselben Gegenstand zu haben glaubt, ein fremdartiges Interesse hereingezogen, und das, worauf es bei der Erkenntnis der Wahrheit ankommt, verdunkelt. So fest der Meinung der Gegensatz des Wahren und des Falschen wird, so pflegt sie auch entweder Beistimmung oder Widerspruch gegen ein vorhandenes philosophisches System zu erwarten, und in einer Erklärung über ein solches nur entweder das eine oder das andre zu sehen. Sie begreift die Verschiedenheit philosophischer Systeme nicht so sehr als die fortschreitende Entwicklung der Wahrheit, als sie in der Verschiedenheit nur den Widerspruch sieht. Die Knospe verschwindet in dem Hervorbrechen der Blüte, und man könnte sagen, daß jene von dieser widerlegt wird, ebenso wird durch die Frucht die Blüte für ein falsches Dasein der Pflanze erklärt, und als ihre Wahrheit tritt jene an die Stelle von dieser. Diese Formen unterscheiden sich nicht nur, sondern verdrängen sich auch als unverträglich miteinander. Aber ihre flüssige Natur macht sie zugleich zu Momenten der organischen Einheit, worin sie sich nicht nur nicht widerstreiten, sondern eins so notwendig als das andere ist, und diese gleiche Notwendigkeit macht erst das Leben des Ganzen aus. Aber der Widerspruch gegen ein philosophisches System pflegt teils sich selbst nicht auf diese Weise zu begreifen, teils auch weiß das auffassende Bewußtsein gemeinhin nicht, ihn von seiner Einseitigkeit zu befreien oder frei zu erhalten, und in der Gestalt des streitend und sich zuwider Scheinenden gegenseitig notwendige Momente zu erkennen.
 
Die Forderung von dergleichen Erklärungen sowie die Befriedigungen derselben scheinen vielleicht das Wesentliche zu betreiben. Worin könnte mehr das Innere einer philosophischen Schrift ausgesprochen sein als in den Zwecken und Resultaten derselben, und wodurch diese bestimmter erkannt werden als durch ihre Verschiedenheit von dem, was das Zeitalter sonst in derselben Sphäre hervorbringt? Wenn aber ein solches Tun für mehr als für den Anfang des Erkennens, wenn es für das wirkliche Erkennen gelten soll, ist es in der Tat zu den Erfindungen zu rechnen, die Sache selbst zu umgehen, und dieses beides zu verbinden, den Anschein des Ernstes und Bemühens um sie, und die wirkliche Ersparung desselben. Denn die Sache ist nicht in ihrem Zwecke erschöpft, sondern in ihrer Ausführung, noch ist das Resultat das wirkliche Ganze, sondern es zusammen mit seinem Werden; der Zweck für sich ist das unlebendige Allgemeine, wie die Tendenz das bloße Treiben, das seiner Wirklichkeit noch entbehrt, und das nackte Resultat ist der Leichnam, der sie hinter sich gelassen. Ebenso ist die Verschiedenheit vielmehr die Grenze der Sache; sie ist da, wo die Sache aufhört, oder sie ist das, was diese nicht ist. Solche Bemühungen mit dem Zwecke oder den Resultaten, sowie mit den Verschiedenheiten und Beurteilungen des einen und des andern, sind daher eine leichtere Arbeit, als sie vielleicht scheinen. Denn statt mit der Sache sich zu befassen, ist solches Tun immer über sie hinaus, statt in ihr zu verweilen und sich in ihr zu vergessen, greift solches Wissen immer nach einem Andern, und bleibt vielmehr bei sich selbst, als daß es bei der Sache ist und sich ihr hingibt. Das leichteste ist, was Gehalt und Gediegenheit hat, zu beurteilen, schwerer, es zu fassen, das schwerste, was beides vereinigt, seine Darstellung hervorzubringen.
 
Der Anfang der Bildung und des Herausarbeitens aus der Unmittelbarkeit des substantiellen Lebens wird immer damit gemacht werden müssen, Kenntnisse allgemeiner Grundsätze und Gesichtspunkte zu erwerben, sich nur erst zu dem Gedanken der Sache überhaupt heraufzuarbeiten, nicht weniger sie mit Gründen zu unterstützen oder zu widerlegen, die konkrete und reiche Fülle nach Bestimmtheiten aufzufassen, und ordentlichen Bescheid und ernsthaftes Urteil über sie zu erteilen zu wissen. Dieser Anfang der Bildung wird aber zunächst dem Ernste des erfüllten Lebens Platz machen, der in die Erfahrung der Sache selbst hineinführt, und wenn auch dies noch hinzukommt, daß der Ernst des Begriffs in ihre Tiefe steigt, so wird eine solche Kenntnis und Beurteilung in der Konversation ihre schickliche Stelle behalten.
 
Die wahre Gestalt, in welcher die Wahrheit existiert, kann allein das wissenschaftliche System derselben sein. Daran mitzuarbeiten, daß die Philosophie der Form der Wissenschaft näher komme dem Ziele, ihren Namen der Liebe zum Wissen ablegen zu können und wirkliches Wissen zu sein , ist es, was ich mir vorgesetzt. Die innere Notwendigkeit, daß das Wissen Wissenschaft sei, liegt in seiner Natur, und die befriedigende Erklärung hierüber ist allein die Darstellung der Philosophie selbst. Die äußere Notwendigkeit aber, insofern sie, abgesehen von der Zufälligkeit der Person und der individuellen Veranlassungen, auf eine allgemeine Weise gefaßt wird, ist dasselbe, was die innere, in der Gestalt, wie die Zeit das Dasein ihrer Momente vorstellt. Daß die Erhebung der Philosophie zur Wissenschaft an der Zeit ist, dies aufzuzeigen würde daher die einzig wahre Rechtfertigung der Versuche sein, die diesen Zweck haben, weil sie die Notwendigkeit desselben dartun, ja weil sie ihn zugleich ausführen würde.
 
Indem die wahre Gestalt der Wahrheit in die Wissenschaftlichkeit gesetzt wird oder, was dasselbe ist, indem die Wahrheit behauptet wird, an dem Begriffe allein das Element ihrer Existenz zu haben , so weiß ich, daß dies im Widerspruch mit einer Vorstellung und deren Folgen zu stehen scheint, welche eine so große Anmaßung als Ausbreitung in der Überzeugung des Zeitalters hat. Eine Erklärung über diesen Widerspruch scheint darum nicht überflüssig; wenn sie auch hier weiter nichts als gleichfalls eine Versicherung, wie das, gegen was sie geht, sein kann. Wenn nämlich das Wahre nur in demjenigen oder vielmehr nur als dasjenige existiert, was bald Anschauung, bald unmittelbares Wissen des Absoluten, Religion, das Sein nicht im Zentrum der göttlichen Liebe, sondern das Sein desselben selbst genannt wird, so wird von da aus zugleich für die Darstellung der Philosophie vielmehr das Gegenteil der Form des Begriffs gefordert. Das Absolute soll nicht begriffen, sondern gefühlt und angeschaut, nicht sein Begriff, sondern sein Gefühl und Anschauung sollen das Wort führen und ausgesprochen werden.
 
Wird die Erscheinung einer solchen Forderung nach ihrem allgemeinem Zusammenhange aufgefaßt, und auf die Stufe gesehen, worauf der selbstbewußte Geist gegenwärtig steht, so ist er über das substantielle Leben, das er sonst im Elemente des Gedankens führte, hinaus, über diese Unmittelbarkeit seines Glaubens, über die Befriedigung und Sicherheit der Gewißheit, welche das Bewußtsein von seiner Versöhnung mit dem Wesen und dessen allgemeiner, der innern und äußern, Gegenwart besaß. Er ist nicht nur darüber hinausgegangen, in das andere Extrem der substanzlosen Reflexion seiner in sich selbst, sondern auch über diese. Sein wesentliches Leben ist ihm nicht nur verloren, er ist auch dieses Verlustes, und der Endlichkeit, die sein Inhalt ist, bewußt. Von den Treibern sich wegwendend, daß er im Argen liegt, bekennend und darauf schmähend, verlangt er nun von der Philosophie nicht sowohl das Wissen dessen, was er ist, als zur Herstellung jener Substantialität und der Gediegenheit des Seins erst wieder durch sie zu gelangen. Diesem Bedürfnisse soll sie also nicht so sehr die Verschlossenheit der Substanz aufschließen, und diese zum Selbstbewußtsein erheben nicht so sehr ihr chaotisches Bewußtsein zur gedachten Ordnung und zur Einfachheit des Begriffes zurückbringen, als vielmehr die Sonderungen des Gedankens zusammenschütten, den unterscheidenden Begriff unterdrücken und das Gefühl des Wesens herstellen, nicht sowohl Einsicht als Erbauung gewähren. Das Schöne, Heilige, Ewige, die Religion und Liebe sind der Köder, der gefordert wird, um die Lust zum Anbeißen zu erwecken, nicht der Begriff, sondern die Ekstase, nicht die kalt fortschreitende Notwendigkeit der Sache, sondern die gärende Begeisterung soll die Haltung und fortleitende Ausbreitung des Reichtums der Substanz sein.
 
Dieser Forderung entspricht die angestrengte und fast eifernd und gereizt sich zeigende Bemühung, die Menschen aus der Versunkenheit ins Sinnliche, Gemeine und Einzelne herauszureißen und ihren Blick zu den Sternen aufzurichten; als ob sie, des Göttlichen ganz vergessend, mit Staub und Wasser, wie der Wurm, auf dem Punkte sich zu befriedigen stünden. Sonst hatten sie einen Himmel mit weitläufigem Reichtume von Gedanken und Bildern ausgestattet. Von allem, was ist, lag die Bedeutung in dem Lichtfaden, durch den es an den Himmel geknüpft war; an ihm, statt in dieser Gegenwart zu verweilen, glitt der Blick über sie hinaus, zum göttlichen Wesen, zu einer, wenn man so sagen kann, jenseitigen Gegenwart hinauf. Das Auge des Geistes mußte mit Zwang auf das Irdische gerichtet und bei ihm festgehalten werden; und es hat einer langen Zeit bedurft, jene Klarheit, die nur das Überirdische hatte, in die Dumpfheit und Verworrenheit, worin der Sinn des Diesseitigen lag, hineinzuarbeiten, und die Aufmerksamkeit auf das Gegenwärtige als solches, welche Erfahrung genannt wurde, interessant und geltend zu machen. Itzt scheint die Not des Gegenteils vorhanden, der Sinn so sehr in das Irdische festgewurzelt, daß es gleicher Gewalt bedarf, ihn darüber zu erheben. Der Geist zeigt sich so arm, daß er sich, wie in der Sandwüste der Wanderer nach einem einfachen Trunk Wasser, nur nach dem dürftigen Gefühle des Göttlichen überhaupt für seine Erquickung zu sehnen scheint. An diesem, woran dem Geiste genügt, ist die Größe seines Verlustes zu ermessen.
 
Diese Genügsamkeit des Empfangens oder Sparsamkeit des Gebens ziemt jedoch der Wissenschaft nicht. Wer nur die Erbauung sucht, wer seine irdische Mannigfaltigkeit des Daseins und des Gedankens in Nebel einzuhüllen und nach dem unbestimmten Genusse dieser unbestimmten Göttlichkeit verlangt, mag zusehen, wo er dies findet; er wird leicht selbst sich etwas vorzuschwärmen und damit sich aufzuspreizen die Mittel finden. Die Philosophie aber muß sich hüten, erbaulich sein zu wollen.
 
Noch weniger muß diese Genügsamkeit, die auf die Wissenschaft Verzicht tut, darauf Anspruch machen, daß solche Begeisterung und Trübheit etwas Höheres sei als die Wissenschaft. Dieses prophetische Reden meint gerade so recht im Mittelpunkte und der Tiefe zu bleiben, blickt verächtlich auf die Bestimmtheit (den Horos) und hält sich absichtlich von dem Begriffe und der Notwendigkeit entfernt, als von der Reflexion, die nur in der Endlichkeit hause. Wie es aber eine leere Breite gibt, so auch eine leere Tiefe, wie eine Extension der Substanz, die sich in endliche Mannigfaltigkeit ergießt, ohne Kraft, sie zusammenzuhalten so ist dies eine gehaltlose Intensität, welche als lautere Kraft ohne Ausbreitung sich haltend, dasselbe ist, was die Oberflächlichkeit. Die Kraft des Geistes ist nur so groß als ihre Äußerung, seine Tiefe nur so tief, als er in seiner Auslegung sich auszubreiten und sich zu verlieren getraut. Zugleich wenn dies begrifflose substantielle Wissen die Eigenheit des Selbsts in dem Wesen versenkt zu haben und wahr und heilig zu philosophieren vorgibt, so verbirgt es sich, daß es, statt dem Gotte ergeben zu sein, durch die Verschmähung des Maßes und der Bestimmung vielmehr nur bald in sich selbst die Zufälligkeit des Inhalts, bald in ihm die eigne Willkür gewähren läßt. Indem sie sich dem ungebändigten Gären der Substanz überlassen, meinen sie, durch die Einhüllung des Selbstbewußtseins und Aufgeben des Verstands, die Seinen zu sein, denen Gott die Weisheit im Schlafe gibt; was sie so in der Tat im Schlafe empfangen und gebären, sind darum auch Träume.
 
Es ist übrigens nicht schwer, zu sehen, daß unsre Zeit eine Zeit der Geburt und des Übergangs zu einer neuen Periode ist. Der Geist hat mit der bisherigen Welt seines Daseins und Vorstellens gebrochen und steht im Begriffe, es in die Vergangenheit hinab zu versenken, und in der Arbeit seiner Umgestaltung. Zwar ist er nie in Ruhe, sondern in immer fortschreitender Bewegung begriffen. Aber wie beim Kinde nach langer stiller Ernährung der erste Atemzug jene Allmählichkeit des nur vermehrenden Fortgangs abbricht ein qualitativer Sprung und das Kind geboren ist, so reift der sich bildende Geist langsam und stille der neuen Gestalt entgegen, löst ein Teilchen des Baues seiner vorgehenden Welt nach dem andern auf, ihr Wanken wird nur durch einzelne Symptome angedeutet; der Leichtsinn wie die Langeweile, die im Bestehenden einreißen, die unbestimmte Ahnung eines Unbekannten sind Vorboten, daß etwas anderes im Anzuge ist. Dies allmähliche Zerbröckeln, das die Physiognomie des Ganzen nicht veränderte, wird durch den Aufgang unterbrochen, der, ein Blitz, in einem Male das Gebilde der neuen Welt hinstellt.
 
Allein eine vollkommne Wirklichkeit hat dies Neue sowenig als das eben geborne Kind; und dies ist wesentlich nicht außer acht zu lassen. Das erste Auftreten ist erst seine Unmittelbarkeit oder sein Begriff. Sowenig ein Gebäude fertig ist, wenn sein Grund gelegt worden, sowenig ist der erreichte Begriff des Ganzen das Ganze selbst. Wo wir eine Eiche in der Kraft ihres Stammes und in der Ausbreitung ihrer Äste und den Massen ihrer Belaubung zu sehen wünschen, sind wir nicht zufrieden, wenn uns an dieser Stelle eine Eichel gezeigt wird. So ist die Wissenschaft, die Krone einer Welt des Geistes, nicht in ihrem Anfange vollendet. Der Anfang des neuen Geistes ist das Produkt einer weitläufigen Umwälzung von mannigfaltigen Bildungsformen, der Preis eines vielfach verschlungnen Weges und ebenso vielfacher Anstrengung und Bemühung. Er ist das aus der Sukzession wie aus seiner Ausdehnung in sich zurückgegangene Ganze, der gewordne einfache Begriff desselben. Die Wirklichkeit dieses einfachen Ganzen aber besteht darin, daß jene zu Momenten gewordne Gestaltungen sich wieder von neuem, aber in ihrem neuen Elemente, in dem gewordenen Sinne entwickeln und Gestaltung geben.
 
Indem einerseits die erste Erscheinung der neuen Welt nur erst das in seine Einfachheit verhüllte Ganze oder sein allgemeiner Grund ist, so ist dem Bewußtsein dagegen der Reichtum des vorhergehenden Daseins noch in der Erinnerung gegenwärtig. Es vermißt an der neu erscheinenden Gestalt die Ausbreitung und Besonderung des Inhalts; noch mehr aber vermißt es die Ausbildung der Form, wodurch die Unterschiede mit Sicherheit bestimmt und in ihre festen Verhältnisse geordnet sind. Ohne diese Ausbildung entbehrt die Wissenschaft der allgemeinen Verständlichkeit, und hat den Schein, ein esoterisches Besitztum einiger Einzelnen zu sein; ein esoterisches Besitztum: denn sie ist nur erst in ihrem Begriffe oder ihr Innres vorhanden; einiger Einzelnen: denn ihre unausgebreitete Erscheinung macht ihr Dasein zum Einzelnen. Erst was vollkommen bestimmt ist, ist zugleich exoterisch, begreiflich, und fähig, gelernt und das Eigentum aller zu sein. Die verständige Form der Wissenschaft ist der allen dargebotene und für alle gleichgemachte Weg zu ihr, und durch den Verstand zum vernünftigen Wissen zu gelangen ist die gerechte Forderung des Bewußtseins, das zur Wissenschaft hinzutritt; denn der Verstand ist das Denken, das reine Ich überhaupt; und das Verständige ist das schon Bekannte und das Gemeinschaftliche der Wissenschaft und des unwissenschaftlichen Bewußtseins, wodurch dieses unmittelbar in jene einzutreten vermag.
 
Die Wissenschaft, die erst beginnt, und es also noch weder zur Vollständigkeit des Details noch zur Vollkommenheit der Form gebracht hat, ist dem Tadel darüber ausgesetzt. Aber wenn dieser ihr Wesen treffen soll, so würde er ebenso ungerecht sein, als es unstatthaft ist, die Forderung jener Ausbildung nicht anerkennen zu wollen. Dieser Gegensatz scheint der hauptsächlichste Knoten zu sein, an dem die wissenschaftliche Bildung sich gegenwärtig zerarbeitet und worüber sie sich noch nicht gehörig versteht. Der eine Teil pocht auf den Reichtum des Materials und die Verständlichkeit, der andre verschmäht wenigstens diese und pocht auf die unmittelbare Vernünftigkeit und Göttlichkeit. Wenn auch jener Teil, es sei durch die Kraft der Wahrheit allein oder auch durch das Ungestüm des andern, zum Stillschweigen gebracht ist, und wenn er in Ansehung des Grunds der Sache sich überwältigt fühlte, so ist er darum in Ansehung jener Forderungen nicht befriedigt, denn sie sind gerecht, aber nicht erfüllt. Sein Stillschweigen gehört nur halb dem Siege, halb aber der Langeweile und Gleichgültigkeit, welche die Folge einer beständig erregten Erwartung und nicht erfolgten Erfüllung der Versprechungen zu sein pflegt.
 
In Ansehung des Inhalts machen die andern sich es wohl zuweilen leicht genug, eine große Ausdehnung zu haben. Sie ziehen auf ihren Boden eine Menge Material, nämlich das schon Bekannte und Geordnete, herein, und indem sie sich vornehmlich mit den Sonderbarkeiten und Kuriositäten zu tun machen, scheinen sie um so mehr das übrige, womit das Wissen in seiner Art schon fertig war, zu besitzen, zugleich auch das noch Ungeregelte zu beherrschen, und somit alles der absoluten Idee zu unterwerfen, welche hiemit in allem erkannt, und zur ausgebreiteten Wissenschaft gediehen zu sein scheint. Näher aber diese Ausbreitung betrachtet, so zeigt sie sich nicht dadurch zustande gekommen, daß ein und dasselbe sich selbst verschieden gestaltet hätte, sondern sie ist die gestaltlose Wiederholung des einen und desselben, das nur an das verschiedene Material äußerlich angewendet ist, und einen langweiligen Schein der Verschiedenheit erhält. Die für sich wohl wahre Idee bleibt in der Tat nur immer in ihrem Anfange stehen, wenn die Entwicklung in nichts als in einer solchen Wiederholung derselben Formel besteht. Die eine unbewegte Form vom wissenden Subjekte an dem Vorhandenen herumgeführt, das Material in dies ruhende Element von außenher eingetaucht, dies ist so wenig, als willkürliche Einfälle über den Inhalt, die Erfüllung dessen, was gefordert wird, nämlich der aus sich entspringende Reichtum und sich selbst bestimmende Unterschied der Gestalten. Es ist vielmehr ein einfarbiger Formalismus, der nur zum Unterschiede des Stoffes, und zwar dadurch kommt, weil dieser schon bereitet und bekannt ist.
 
Dabei behauptet er diese Eintönigkeit und die abstrakte Allgemeinheit für das Absolute; er versichert, daß die Ungenügsamkeit mit ihr eine Unfähigkeit sei, sich des absoluten Standpunktes zu bemächtigen und auf ihm festzuhalten. Wenn sonst die leere Möglichkeit, sich etwas auf eine andere Weise vorzustellen, hinreichte, um eine Vorstellung zu widerlegen, und dieselbe bloße Möglichkeit, der allgemeine Gedanke, auch den ganzen positiven Wert des wirklichen Erkennens hatte, so sehen wir hier ebenso der allgemeinen Idee in dieser Form der Unwirklichkeit allen Wert zugeschrieben, und die Auflösung des Unterschiedenen und Bestimmten, oder vielmehr das weiter nicht entwickelte noch an ihm selbst sich rechtfertigende Hinunterwerfen desselben in den Abgrund des Leeren für spekulative Betrachtungsart gelten. Irgendein Dasein, wie es im Absoluten ist, betrachten, besteht hier in nichts anderem, als daß davon gesagt wird, es sei zwar itzt von ihm gesprochen worden, als von einem Etwas, im Absoluten, dem A = A, jedoch gebe es dergleichen gar nicht, sondern darin sei alles eins. Dies eine Wissen, daß im Absoluten alles gleich ist, der unterscheidenden und erfüllten oder Erfüllung suchenden und fordernden Erkenntnis entgegenzusetzen oder sein Absolutes für die Nacht auszugeben, worin, wie man zu sagen pflegt, alle Kühe schwarz sind, ist die Naivität der Leere an Erkenntnis. Der Formalismus, den die Philosophie neuerer Zeit verklagt und geschmäht, und der sich in ihr selbst wieder erzeugte, wird, wenn auch seine Ungenügsamkeit bekannt und gefühlt ist, aus der Wissenschaft nicht verschwinden, bis das Erkennen der absoluten Wirklichkeit sich über seine Natur vollkommen klar geworden ist. In der Rücksicht, daß die allgemeine Vorstellung, wenn sie dem, was ein Versuch ihrer Ausführung ist, vorangeht, das Auffassen der letztern erleichtert, ist es dienlich, das Ungefähre derselben hier anzudeuten, in der Absicht zugleich, bei dieser Gelegenheit einige Formen zu entfernen, deren Gewohnheit ein Hindernis für das philosophische Erkennen ist.
 
Es kömmt nach meiner Einsicht, welche sich durch die Darstellung des Systems selbst rechtfertigen muß, alles darauf an, das Wahre nicht als Substanz, sondern ebensosehr als Subjekt aufzufassen und auszudrücken. Zugleich ist zu bemerken, daß die Substantialität sosehr das Allgemeine oder die Unmittelbarkeit des Wissens als diejenige, welche Sein oder Unmittelbarkeit für das Wissen ist, in sich schließt. Wenn, Gott als die eine Substanz zu fassen, das Zeitalter empörte, worin diese Bestimmung ausgesprochen wurde, so lag teils der Grund hievon in dem Instinkte, daß darin das Selbstbewußtsein nur untergegangen, nicht erhalten ist, teils aber ist das Gegenteil, welches das Denken als Denken festhält, die Allgemeinheit, dieselbe Einfachheit oder ununterschiedne, unbewegte Substantialität, und wenn drittens das Denken das Sein der Substanz als solche mit sich vereint und die Unmittelbarkeit oder das Anschauen als Denken erfaßt, so kömmt es noch darauf an, ob dieses intellektuelle Anschauen nicht wieder in die träge Einfachheit zurückfällt, und die Wirklichkeit selbst auf eine unwirkliche Weise darstellt.
 
Die lebendige Substanz ist ferner das Sein, welches in Wahrheit Subjekt, oder, was dasselbe heißt, welches in Wahrheit wirklich ist, nur insofern sie die Bewegung des Sich-selbst-setzens, oder die Vermittlung des Sich-anders-werdens mit sich selbst ist. Sie ist als Subjekt die reine einfache Negativität, eben dadurch die Entzweiung des Einfachen, oder die entgegensetzende Verdopplung, welche wieder die Negation dieser gleichgültigen Verschiedenheit und ihres Gegensatzes ist; nur diese sich wiederherstellende Gleichheit oder die Reflexion im Anderssein in sich selbst nicht eine ursprüngliche Einheit als solche, oder unmittelbare als solche, ist das Wahre. Es ist das Werden seiner selbst, der Kreis, der sein Ende als seinen Zweck voraussetzt und zum Anfange hat, und nur durch die Ausführung und sein Ende wirklich ist.
 
Das Leben Gottes und das göttliche Erkennen mag also wohl als ein Spielen der Liebe mit sich selbst ausgesprochen werden; diese Idee sinkt zur Erbaulichkeit und selbst zur Fadheit herab, wenn der Ernst, der Schmerz, die Geduld und Arbeit des Negativen darin fehlt. An sich ist jenes Leben wohl die ungetrübte Gleichheit und Einheit mit sich selbst, der es kein Ernst mit dem Anderssein und der Entfremdung, so wie mit dem Überwinden dieser Entfremdung ist. Aber dies An-sich ist die abstrakte Allgemeinheit, in welcher von seiner Natur, für sich zu sein, und damit überhaupt von der Selbstbewegung der Form abgesehen wird. Wenn die Form als dem Wesen gleich ausgesagt wird, so ist es eben darum ein Mißverstand, zu meinen, daß das Erkennen sich mit dem An-sich oder dem Wesen begnügen, die Form aber ersparen könne; daß der absolute Grundsatz oder die absolute Anschauung, die Ausführung des erstern oder die Entwicklung der andern entbehrlich mache. Gerade weil die Form dem Wesen so wesentlich ist, als es sich selbst, ist es nicht bloß als Wesen, d.h. als unmittelbare Substanz, oder als reine Selbstanschauung des Göttlichen zu fassen und auszudrücken, sondern ebensosehr als Form und im ganzen Reichtum der entwickelten Form; dadurch wird es erst als Wirkliches gefaßt und ausgedrückt.
 
Das Wahre ist das Ganze. Das Ganze aber ist nur das durch seine Entwicklung sich vollendende Wesen. Es ist von dem Absoluten zu sagen, daß es wesentlich Resultat, daß es erst am Ende das ist, was es in Wahrheit ist; und hierin eben besteht seine Natur, Wirkliches, Subjekt, oder Sich-selbst-werden, zu sein. So widersprechend es scheinen mag, daß das Absolute wesentlich als Resultat zu begreifen sei, so stellt doch eine geringe Überlegung diesen Schein von Widerspruch zurecht. Der Anfang, das Prinzip, oder das Absolute, wie es zuerst und unmittelbar ausgesprochen wird, ist nur das Allgemeine. Sowenig, wenn ich sage: alle Tiere, dies Wort für eine Zoologie gelten kann, ebenso fällt es auf, daß die Worte des Göttlichen, Absoluten, Ewigen usw. das nicht aussprechen, was darin enthalten ist; und nur solche Worte drücken in der Tat die Anschauung als das Unmittelbare aus. Was mehr ist, als ein solches Wort, der Übergang auch nur zu einem Satze, ist ein Anderswerden, das zurückgenommen werden muß, ist eine Vermittlung. Diese aber ist das, was perhorresziert wird, als ob dadurch, daß mehr aus ihr gemacht wird denn nur dies, daß sie nichts Absolutes und im Absoluten gar nicht sei, die absolute Erkenntnis aufgegeben wäre.
 
Dies Perhorreszieren stammt aber in der Tat aus der Unbekanntschaft mit der Natur der Vermittlung und des absoluten Erkennens selbst. Denn die Vermittlung ist nichts anders als die sich bewegende Sichselbstgleichheit, oder sie ist die Reflexion in sich selbst, das Moment des fürsichseienden ich, die reine Negativität oder das einfache Werden. Das Ich, oder das Werden überhaupt, dieses Vermitteln ist um seiner Einfachheit willen eben die werdende Unmittelbarkeit und das Unmittelbare selbst. Es ist daher ein Verkennen der Vernunft, wenn die Reflexion aus dem Wahren ausgeschlossen und nicht als positives Moment des Absoluten erfaßt wird. Sie ist es, die das Wahre zum Resultate macht, aber diesen Gegensatz gegen sein Werden ebenso aufhebt, denn dies Werden ist ebenso einfach und daher von der Form des Wahren, im Resultate sich als einfach zu zeigen, nicht verschieden; es ist vielmehr eben dies Zurückgegangensein in die Einfachheit. Wenn der Embryo wohl an sich Mensch ist, so ist er es aber nicht für sich; für sich ist er es nur als gebildete Vernunft, die sich zu dem gemacht hat, was sie an sich ist. Dies erst ist ihre Wirklichkeit. Aber dies Resultat ist selbst einfache Unmittelbarkeit, denn es ist die selbstbewußte Freiheit, die in sich selbst ruht, und den Gegensatz nicht auf die Seite gebracht hat und ihn da liegen läßt, sondern mit ihm versöhnt ist.
 
Das Gesagte kann auch so ausgedrückt werden, daß die Vernunft das zweckmäßige Tun ist. Die Erhebung der vermeinten Natur über das mißkannte Denken, und zunächst die Verbannung der äußern Zweckmäßigkeit hat die Form des Zwecks überhaupt in Mißkredit gebracht. Allein, wie auch Aristoteles die Natur als das zweckmäßige Tun bestimmt, der Zweck ist das Unmittelbare, das Ruhende, welches selbst bewegend oder Subjekt ist. Seine abstrakte Kraft zu bewegen ist das Für-sich-sein oder die reine Negativität. Das Resultat ist nur darum dasselbe, was der Anfang, weil der Anfang Zweck ist; oder das Wirkliche ist nur darum dasselbe, was sein Begriff, weil das Unmittelbare als Zweck das Selbst oder die reine Wirklichkeit in ihm selbst hat. Der ausgeführte Zweck oder das daseiende Wirkliche ist die Bewegung und das entfaltete Werden; eben diese Unruhe aber ist das Selbst; und jener Unmittelbarkeit und Einfachheit des Anfangs ist es darum gleich, weil es das Resultat, das in sich Zurückgekehrte, das in sich Zurückgekehrte aber eben das Selbst, und das Selbst die sich auf sich beziehende Gleichheit und Einfachheit ist.
 
Das Bedürfnis, das Absolute als Subjekt vorzustellen, bediente sich der Sätze: Gott ist das Ewige, oder die moralische Weltordnung oder die Liebe usf. In solchen Sätzen ist das Wahre nur geradezu als Subjekt gesetzt, nicht aber als die Bewegung des sich In-sich-selbst-reflektierens dargestellt. Es wird in einem Satze der Art mit dem Worte: Gott angefangen. Dies für sich ist ein sinnloser Laut, ein bloßer Name; erst das Prädikat sagt, was er ist, ist seine Erfüllung und Bedeutung; der leere Anfang wird nur in diesem Ende ein wirkliches Wissen. Insofern ist nicht abzusehen, warum nicht vom Ewigen, der moralischen Weltordnung usf., oder, wie die Alten taten, von reinen Begriffen, dem Sein, dem Einen usf., von dem, was die Bedeutung ist, allein gesprochen wird, ohne den sinnlosen Laut noch hinzuzufügen. Aber durch dies Wort wird eben bezeichnet, daß nicht ein Sein oder Wesen oder Allgemeines überhaupt, sondern ein in sich Reflektiertes, ein Subjekt gesetzt ist. Allein zugleich ist dies nur antizipiert. Das Subjekt ist als fester Punkt angenommen, an den als ihren Halt die Prädikate geheftet sind, durch eine Bewegung, die dem von ihm Wissenden angehört, und die auch nicht dafür angesehen wird, dem Punkte selbst anzugehören; durch sie aber wäre allein der Inhalt als Subjekt dargestellt. In der Art, wie diese Bewegung beschaffen ist, kann sie ihm nicht angehören; aber nach Voraussetzung jenes Punkts kann sie auch nicht anders beschaffen, kann sie nur äußerlich sein. Jene Antizipation, daß das Absolute Subjekt ist, ist daher nicht nur nicht die Wirklichkeit dieses Begriffs, sondern macht sie sogar unmöglich, denn jene setzt ihn als ruhenden Punkt, diese aber ist die Selbstbewegung.
 
Unter mancherlei Folgerungen, die aus dem Gesagten fließen, kann diese herausgehoben werden, daß das Wissen nur als Wissenschaft oder als System wirklich ist und dargestellt werden kann. Daß ferner ein sogenannter Grundsatz oder Prinzip der Philosophie, wenn es wahr ist, schon darum auch falsch ist, weil er Grundsatz oder Prinzip ist. Es ist deswegen leicht, ihn zu widerlegen. Die Widerlegung besteht darin, daß sein Mangel aufgezeigt wird; mangelhaft aber ist er, weil er nur das Allgemeine oder Prinzip, der Anfang, ist. Ist die Widerlegung gründlich, so ist sie aus ihm selbst genommen und entwickelt, nicht durch entgegengesetzte Versicherungen und Einfälle von außen her bewerkstelligt. Sie würde also eigentlich seine Entwicklung und somit die Ergänzung seiner Mangelhaftigkeit sein, wenn sie sich nicht darin verkännte, daß sie ihre negative Seite allein beachtet, und ihres Fortgangs und Resultates nicht auch nach seiner positiven Seite bewußt wird. Die eigentliche positive Ausführung des Anfangs ist zugleich umgekehrt ebensosehr ein negatives Verhalten gegen ihn, nämlich gegen seine einseitige Form, erst unmittelbar oder Zweck zu sein. Sie kann somit ebensosehr als die Widerlegung desjenigen genommen werden, was den Grund des Systems ausmacht, besser aber als ein Aufzeigen, daß der Grund oder das Prinzip des Systems in der Tat nur sein Anfang ist.
 
Daß das Wahre nur als System wirklich, oder daß die Substanz wesentlich Subjekt ist, ist in der Vorstellung ausgedrückt, welche das Absolute als Geist ausspricht, der erhabenste Begriff, und der der neuern Zeit und ihrer Religion angehört. Das Geistige allein ist das Wirkliche; es ist das Wesen oder An-sich-seiende, das sich Verhaltende oder Bestimmte, das Anderssein und Für-sich-sein und in dieser Bestimmtheit oder seinem Außer-sich-sein in sich selbst Bleibende; oder es ist an und für sich. Dies An-und-für-sich-sein aber ist es erst für uns oder an sich, oder es ist die geistige Substanz. Es muß dies auch für sich selbst muß das Wissen von dem Geistigen und das Wissen von sich als dem Geiste sein; das heißt, es muß sich als Gegenstand sein, aber ebenso unmittelbar als vermittelter, das heißt aufgehobener, in sich reflektierter Gegenstand. Er ist für sich nur für uns, insofern sein geistiger Inhalt durch ihn selbst erzeugt ist; insofern er aber auch für sich selbst für sich ist, so ist dieses Selbsterzeugen, der reine Begriff, ihm zugleich das gegenständliche Element, worin er sein Dasein hat; und er ist auf diese Weise in seinem Dasein für sich selbst in sich reflektierter Gegenstand. Der Geist, der sich so als Geist weiß, ist die Wissenschaft. Sie ist seine Wirklichkeit und das Reich, das er sich in seinem eigenen Elemente erbaut.
 
Das reine Selbsterkennen im absoluten Anderssein, dieser Äther als solcher, ist der Grund und Boden der Wissenschaft oder das Wissen im Allgemeinen. Der Anfang der Philosophie macht die Voraussetzung oder Forderung, daß das Bewußtsein sich in diesem Elemente befinde. Aber dieses Element hat seine Vollendung und Durchsichtigkeit selbst nur durch die Bewegung seines Werdens. Es ist die reine Geistigkeit, oder das Allgemeine, das die Weise der einfachen Unmittelbarkeit hat. Weil es die Unmittelbarkeit des Geistes, weil die Substanz überhaupt der Geists ist, ist sie die verklärte Wesenheit, die Reflexion, die selbst einfach oder die Unmittelbarkeit ist, das Sein, das die Reflexion in sich selbst ist. Die Wissenschaft von ihrer Seite verlangt vom Selbstbewußtsein, daß es in diesen Äther sich erhoben habe, um mit ihr und in ihr leben zu können und zu leben. Umgekehrt hat das Individuum das Recht zu fordern, daß die Wissenschaft ihm die Leiter wenigstens zu diesem Standpunkte reiche. Sein Recht gründet sich auf seine absolute Selbstständigkeit, die es in jeder Gestalt seines Wissens zu besitzen weiß, denn in jeder, sei sie von der Wissenschaft anerkannt oder nicht, und der Inhalt sei welcher er wolle, ist es die absolute Form zugleich oder hat die unmittelbare Gewißheit seiner selbst; und, wenn dieser Ausdruck vorgezogen würde, damit unbedingtes Sein. Wenn der Standpunkt des Bewußtseins, von gegenständlichen Dingen im Gegensatze gegen sich selbst und von sich selbst im Gegensatze gegen sie zu wissen, der Wissenschaft als das Andre gilt das, worin es bei sich selbst ist, vielmehr als der Verlust des Geistes , so ist ihm dagegen das Element der Wissenschaft eine jenseitige Ferne, worin es nicht mehr sich selbst besitzt. Jeder von diesen beiden Teilen scheint für den andern das Verkehrte der Wahrheit zu sein. Daß das natürliche Bewußtsein sich der Wissenschaft unmittelbar anvertraut, ist ein Versuch, den es, es weiß nicht von was angezogen, macht, auch einmal auf dem Kopfe zu gehen; der Zwang, diese ungewohnte Stellung anzunehmen und sich in ihr zu bewegen, ist eine so unvorbereitete als unnötig scheinende Gewalt, die ihm angemutet wird, sich anzutun. Die Wissenschaft sei an ihr selbst, was sie will, im Verhältnisse zum unmittelbaren Selbstbewußtsein stellt sie sich als ein Verkehrtes gegen es dar, oder weil das unmittelbare Selbstbewußtsein das Prinzip der Wirklichkeit ist, trägt sie, indem es für sich außer ihr ist, die Form der Unwirklichkeit. Sie hat darum jenes Element mit ihr zu vereinigen, oder vielmehr zu zeigen, daß und wie es ihr selbst angehört. Der Wirklichkeit entbehrend, ist sie nur das An-sich, der Zweck, der erst noch ein Innres, nicht als Geist, nur erst geistige Substanz ist. Sie hat sich zu äußern und für sich selbst zu werden, dies heißt nichts anders als: sie hat das Selbstbewußtsein als eins mit sich zu setzen.
 
Dies Werden der Wissenschaft überhaupt, oder des Wissens, ist es, was diese Phänomenologie des Geistes, als der erste Teil des Systems derselben, darstellt. Das Wissen, wie es zuerst ist, oder der unmittelbare Geist ist das Geistlose, oder ist das sinnliche Bewußtsein. Um zum eigentlichen Wissen zu werden, oder das Element der Wissenschaft, was ihr reiner Begriff ist, zu erzeugen, hat er durch einen langen Weg sich hindurchzuarbeiten. Dieses Werden, wie es in seinem Inhalte und den Gestalten, die sich in ihm zeigen, aufgestellt ist, erscheint als etwas anderes denn als die Anleitung des unwissenschaftlichen Bewußtseins zur Wissenschaft; auch etwas anderes als die Begründung der Wissenschaft; so ohnehin, als die Begeisterung, die wie aus der Pistole mit dem absoluten Wissen unmittelbar anfängt, und mit andern Standpunkten dadurch schon fertig ist, daß sie keine Notiz davon zu nehmen erklärt.
 
Die Aufgabe aber, das Individuum von seinem ungebildeten Standpunkte aus zum Wissen zu führen, war in ihrem allgemeinen Sinn zu fassen, und das allgemeine Individuum, der Weltgeist, in seiner Bildung zu betrachten. Was das Verhältnis beider betrifft, so zeigt sich in dem allgemeinen Individuum jedes Moment, wie es die konkrete Form und eigne Gestaltung gewinnt. Das besondre Individuum aber ist der unvollständige Geist, eine konkrete Gestalt, deren ganzes Dasein einer Bestimmtheit zufällt, und worin die andern nur in vermischten Zügen vorhanden sind. In dem Geiste, der höher steht als ein anderer, ist das niedrigere konkrete Dasein zu einem unscheinbaren Momente herabgesunken; was vorher die Sache selbst war, ist nur noch eine Spur; ihre Gestalt ist eingehüllt und eine einfache Schattierung geworden. Diese Vergangenheit durchläuft das Individuum, dessen Substanz der höherstehende Geist ist, auf die Art, wie der eine höhere Wissenschaft vornimmt, die Vorbereitungskenntnisse, die er längst innehat, um sich ihren Inhalt gegenwärtig zu machen, durchgeht; er ruft die Erinnerung desselben zurück, ohne darin sein Interesse und Verweilen zu haben. So durchlauft jeder einzelne auch die Bildungsstufen des allgemeinen Geistes, aber als vom Geiste schon abgelegte Gestalten, als Stufen eines Wegs, der ausgearbeitet und geebnet ist; wie wir in Ansehung der Kenntnisse das, was in frühern Zeitaltern den reifen Geist der Männer beschäftigte, zu Kenntnissen, Übungen und selbst Spielen des Knabensalters herabgesunken sehen, und in dem pädagogischen Fortschreiten die wie im Schattenrisse nachgezeichnete Geschichte der Bildung der Welt erkennen werden. Dies vergangne Dasein ist schon erworbnes Eigentum des allgemeinen Geistes, der die Substanz des Individuums oder seine unorganische Natur ausmacht. Die Bildung des Individuums in dieser Rücksicht besteht, von seiner Seite aus betrachtet, darin, daß es dies Vorhandne erwerbe, seine unorganische Natur in sich zehre und für sich in Besitz nehme. Dies ist aber ebensosehr nichts anders, als daß der allgemeine Geist oder die Substanz sich ihr Selbstbewußtsein gibt, oder ihr Werden und Reflexion in sich.
 
Die Wissenschaft stellt diese bildende Bewegung sowohl in ihrer Ausführlichkeit und Notwendigkeit, als das, was schon zum Momente und Eigentum des Geists herabgesunken ist, in seiner Gestaltung dar. Das Ziel ist die Einsicht des Geistes in das, was das Wissen ist. Die Ungeduld verlangt das Unmögliche, nämlich die Erreichung des Ziels ohne die Mittel. Einesteils ist die Länge dieses Wegs zu ertragen, denn jedes Moment ist notwendig, andernteils bei jedem sich zu verweilen, denn jedes ist selbst eine individuelle ganze Gestalt, und wird nur absolut betrachtet, insofern seine Bestimmtheit als Ganzes oder Konkretes, oder das Ganze in der Eigentümlichkeit dieser Bestimmung betrachtet wird. Weil die Substanz des Individuums, weil der Weltgeist die Geduld gehabt, diese Formen in der langen Ausdehnung der Zeit zu durchgehen und die ungeheure Arbeit der Weltgeschichte zu übernehmen, und weil er durch keine geringere das Bewußtsein über sich erreichen konnte, so kann zwar das Individuum nicht mit weniger seine Substanz begreifen. Inzwischen hat es zugleich geringere Mühe, weil an sich dies vollbracht, der Inhalt schon die zur Möglichkeit getilgte Wirklichkeit und die bezwungne Unmittelbarkeit ist. Schon ein Gedachtes, ist er Eigentum der Individualität; es ist nicht mehr das Dasein in das An-sich-sein, sondern nur das An-sich in die Form des Für-sich-seins umzukehren, dessen Art näher zu bestimmen ist.
 
Was dem Individuum an dieser Bewegung erspart ist, ist das Aufheben des Daseins; was aber noch übrig ist, ist die Vorstellung und die Bekanntschaft mit den Formen. Das in die Substanz zurückgenommne Dasein ist durch jene erste Negation nur erst unmittelbar in das Element des Selbsts versetzt; es hat also noch denselben Charakter der unbegriffnen Unmittelbarkeit oder unbewegten Gleichgültigkeit als das Dasein selbst, oder es ist nur in die Vorstellung übergegangen. Zugleich ist es dadurch ein Bekanntes, ein solches, mit dem der Geist fertig geworden, worin daher seine Tätigkeit und somit sein Interesse nicht mehr ist. Wenn die Tätigkeit, die mit dem Dasein fertig wird, die unmittelbare oder daseiende Vermittlung, und hiemit die Bewegung nur des besondern sich nicht begreifenden Geistes ist, so ist dagegen das Wissen gegen die hiedurch zustande gekommne Vorstellung, gegen dies Bekanntsein gerichtet, ist das Tun des allgemeinen Selbsts und das Interesse des Denkens.
 
Das Bekannte überhaupt ist darum, weil es bekannt ist, nicht erkannt. Es ist die gewöhnlichste Selbsttäuschung wie Täuschung anderer, beim Erkennen etwas als bekannt vorauszusetzen, und es sich ebenso gefallen zu lassen; mit allem Hin- und Herreden kommt solches Wissen, ohne zu wissen, wie ihm geschieht, nicht von der Stelle. Das Subjekt und Objekt usf., Gott, Natur, der Verstand, die Sinnlichkeit usf. werden unbesehen als bekannt und als etwas Gültiges zugrunde gelegt und machen feste Punkte sowohl des Ausgangs als der Rückkehr aus. Die Bewegung geht zwischen ihnen, die unbewegt bleiben, hin und her, und somit nur auf ihrer Oberfläche vor. So besteht auch das Auffassen und Prüfen darin, zu sehen, ob jeder das von ihnen Gesagte auch in seiner Vorstellung findet, ob es ihm so scheint und bekannt ist oder nicht.
 
Das Analysieren einer Vorstellung, wie es sonst getrieben worden, war schon nichts anderes als das Aufheben der Form ihres Bekanntseins. Eine Vorstellung in ihre ursprünglichen Elemente auseinanderlegen, ist das Zurückgehen zu ihren Momenten, die wenigstens nicht die Form der vorgefundenen Vorstellung haben, sondern das unmittelbare Eigentum des Selbsts ausmachen. Diese Analyse kömmt zwar nur zu Gedanken, welche selbst bekannte, feste und ruhende Bestimmungen sind. Aber ein wesentliches Moment ist dies Geschiedne, Unwirkliche selbst; denn nur darum, daß das Konkrete sich scheidet und zum Unwirklichen macht, ist es das sich Bewegende. Die Tätigkeit des Scheidens ist die Kraft und Arbeit des Verstandes, der verwundersamsten und größten, oder vielmehr der absoluten Macht. Der Kreis, der in sich geschlossen ruht, und als Substanz seine Momente hält, ist das unmittelbare und darum nicht verwundersame Verhältnis. Aber daß das von seinem Umfange getrennte Akzidentelle als solches, das gebundne und nur in seinem Zusammenhange mit anderm Wirkliche ein eigenes Dasein und abgesonderte Freiheit gewinnt, ist die ungeheure Macht des Negativen; es ist die Energie des Denkens, des reinen Ichs. Der Tod, wenn wir jene Unwirklichkeit so nennen wollen, ist das Furchtbarste, und das Tote festzuhalten das, was die größte Kraft erfordert. Die kraftlose Schönheit haßt den Verstand, weil er ihr dies zumutet, was sie nicht vermag. Aber nicht das Leben, das sich vor dem Tode scheut und von der Verwüstung rein bewahrt, sondern das ihn erträgt und in ihm sich erhält, ist das Leben des Geistes. Er gewinnt seine Wahrheit nur, indem er in der absoluten Zerrissenheit sich selbst findet. Diese Macht ist er nicht als das Positive, welches von dem Negativen wegsieht, wie wenn wir von etwas sagen, dies ist nichts oder falsch, und nun, damit fertig, davon weg zu irgend etwas anderem übergehen; sondern er ist diese Macht nur, indem er dem Negativen ins Angesicht schaut, bei ihm verweilt. Dieses Verweilen ist die Zauberkraft, die es in das Sein umkehrt. Sie ist dasselbe, was oben das Subjekt genannt worden, welches darin, daß es der Bestimmtheit in seinem Elemente Dasein gibt, die abstrakte, d.h. nur überhaupt seiende Unmittelbarkeit aufhebt, und dadurch die wahrhafte Substanz ist, das Sein oder die Unmittelbarkeit, welche nicht die Vermittlung außer ihr hat, sondern diese selbst ist.
 
Daß das Vorgestellte Eigentum des reinen Selbstbewußtseins wird, diese Erhebung zur Allgemeinheit überhaupt ist nur die eine Seite, noch nicht die vollendete Bildung. Die Art des Studiums der alten Zeit hat diese Verschiedenheit von dem der neuern, daß jenes die eigentliche Durchbildung des natürlichen Bewußtseins war. An jedem Teile seines Daseins sich besonders versuchend und über alles Vorkommende philosophierend, erzeugte es sich zu einer durch und durch betätigten Allgemeinheit. In der neuern Zeit hingegen findet das Individuum die abstrakte Form vorbereitet; die Anstrengung, sie zu ergreifen und sich zu eigen zu machen, ist mehr das unvermittelte Hervortreiben des Innern und abgeschnittne Erzeugen des Allgemeinen als ein Hervorgehen desselben aus dem Konkreten und der Mannigfaltigkeit des Daseins. Itzt besteht darum die Arbeit nicht so sehr darin, das Individuum aus der unmittelbaren sinnlichen Weise zu reinigen und es zur gedachten und denkenden Substanz zu machen, als vielmehr in dem Entgegengesetzten, durch das Aufheben der festen bestimmten Gedanken das Allgemeine zu verwirklichen und zu begeistert. Es ist aber weit schwerer, die festen Gedanken in Flüssigkeit zu bringen, als das sinnliche Dasein. Der Grund ist das vorhin Angegebene; jene Bestimmungen haben das Ich, die Macht des Negativen oder die reine Wirklichkeit zur Substanz und zum Element ihres Daseins; die sinnlichen Bestimmungen dagegen nur die unmächtige abstrakte Unmittelbarkeit oder das Sein als solches. Die Gedanken werden flüssig, indem das reine Denken, diese innere Unmittelbarkeit, sich als Moment erkennt oder indem die reine Gewißheit seiner selbst von sich abstrahiert; nicht sich wegläßt, auf die Seite setzt, sondern das Fixe ihres Sich-selbst-setzens aufgibt, sowohl das Fixe des reinen Konkreten, welches Ich selbst im Gegensatze gegen unterschiedenen Inhalt ist, als das Fixe von Unterschiedenen, die im Elemente des reinen Denkens gesetzt an jener Unbedingtheit des Ich Anteil haben. Durch diese Bewegung werden die reinen Gedanken Begriffe, und sind erst, was sie in Wahrheit sind, Selbstbewegungen, Kreise, das, was ihre Substanz ist, geistige Wesenheiten.
 
Diese Bewegung der reinen Wesenheiten macht die Natur der Wissenschaftlichkeit überhaupt aus. Als der Zusammenhang ihres Inhalts betrachtet, ist sie die Notwendigkeit und Ausbreitung desselben zum organischen Ganzen. Der Weg, wodurch der Begriff des Wissens erreicht wird, wird durch sie gleichfalls ein notwendiges und vollständiges Werden, so daß diese Vorbereitung aufhört, ein zufälliges Philosophieren zu sein, das sich an diese und jene Gegenstände, Verhältnisse und Gedanken des unvollkommenen Bewußtseins, wie die Zufälligkeit es mit sich bringt, anknüpft, oder durch ein hin- und hergehendes Räsonnement, Schließen und Folgern aus bestimmten Gedanken das Wahre zu begründen sucht; sondern dieser Weg wird durch die Bewegung des Begriffs die vollständige Weltlichkeit des Bewußtseins in ihrer Notwendigkeit umfassen.
 
Eine solche Darstellung macht ferner den ersten Teil der Wissenschaft darum aus, weil das Dasein des Geistes als Erstes nichts anderes als das Unmittelbare oder der Anfang, der Anfang aber noch nicht seine Rückkehr in sich ist. Das Element des unmittelbaren Daseins ist daher die Bestimmtheit, wodurch sich dieser Teil der Wissenschaft von den andern unterscheidet. Die Angabe dieses Unterschiedes führt zur Erörterung einiger festen Gedanken, die hiebei vorzukommen pflegen.
 
Das unmittelbare Dasein des Geistes, das Bewußtsein, hat die zwei Momente des Wissens und der dem Wissen negativen Gegenständlichkeit. Indem in diesem Elemente sich der Geist entwickelt und seine Momente auslegt, so kommt ihnen dieser Gegensatz zu, und sie treten alle als Gestalten des Bewußtseins auf. Die Wissenschaft dieses Wegs ist Wissenschaft der Erfahrung, die das Bewußtsein macht; die Substanz wird betrachtet, wie sie und ihre Bewegung sein Gegenstand ist. Das Bewußtsein weiß und begreift nichts, als was in seiner Erfahrung ist; denn was in dieser ist, ist nur die geistige Substanz, und zwar als Gegenstand ihres Selbsts. Der Geist wird aber Gegenstand, denn er ist diese Bewegung, sich ein anderes, d.h. Gegenstand seines Selbsts zu werden, und dieses Anderssein aufzuheben. Und die Erfahrung wird eben diese Bewegung genannt, worin das Unmittelbare, das Unerfahrne, d.h. das Abstrakte, es sei des sinnlichen Seins oder des nur gedachten Einfachen, sich entfremdet, und dann aus dieser Entfremdung zu sich zurückgeht, und hiemit itzt erst in seiner Wirklichkeit und Wahrheit dargestellt wie auch Eigentum des Bewußtseins ist.
 
Die Ungleichheit, die im Bewußtsein zwischen dem Ich und der Substanz, die sein Gegenstand ist, stattfindet, ist ihr Unterschied, das Negative überhaupt. Es kann als der Mangel beider angesehen werden, ist aber ihre Seele oder das Bewegende derselben; weswegen einige Alte das Leere als das Bewegende begriffen, indem sie das Bewegende zwar als das Negative, aber dieses noch nicht als das Selbst erfaßten. Wenn nun dies Negative zunächst als Ungleichheit des Ichs zum Gegenstande erscheint, so ist es ebensosehr die Ungleichheit der Substanz zu sich selbst. Was außer ihr vorzugehen, eine Tätigkeit gegen sie zu sein scheint, ist ihr eigenes Tun, und sie zeigt sich wesentlich Subjekt zu sein. Indem sie dies vollkommen gezeigt, hat der Geist sein Dasein seinem Wesen gleich gemacht; er ist sich Gegenstand, wie er ist, und das abstrakte Element der Unmittelbarkeit und der Trennung des Wissens und der Wahrheit ist überwunden. Das Sein ist absolut vermittelt; es ist substantieller Inhalt, der ebenso unmittelbar Eigentum des Ich, selbstisch oder der Begriff ist. Hiemit beschließt sich die Phänomenologie des Geistes. Was er in ihr sich bereitet, ist das Element des Wissens. In diesem breiten sich nun die Momente des Geistes in der Form der Einfachheit aus, die ihren Gegenstand als sich selbst weiß. Sie fallen nicht mehr in den Gegensatz des Seins und Wissens auseinander, sondern bleiben in der Einfachheit des Wissens, sind das Wahre in der Form des Wahren, und ihre Verschiedenheit ist nur Verschiedenheit des Inhalts. Ihre Bewegung, die sich in diesem Elemente zum Ganzen organisiert, ist die Logik oder spekulative Philosophie.
 
Weil nun jenes System der Erfahrung des Geistes nur die Erscheinung desselben befaßt, so scheint der Fortgang von ihm zur Wissenschaft des Wahren, das in der Gestalt des Wahren ist, bloß negativ zu sein, und man könnte mit dem Negativen als dem Falschen verschont bleiben wollen und verlangen, ohne weiteres zur Wahrheit geführt zu werden; wozu sich mit dem Falschen abgeben? Wovon schon oben die Rede war, daß sogleich mit der Wissenschaft sollte angefangen werden, darauf ist hier nach der Seite zu antworten, welche Beschaffenheit es mit dem Negativen als Falschem überhaupt hat. Die Vorstellungen hierüber hindern vornehmlich den Eingang zur Wahrheit. Dies wird Veranlassung geben, vom mathematischen Erkennen zu sprechen, welches das unphilosophische Wissen als das Ideal ansieht, das zu erreichen die Philosophie streben müßte, bisher aber vergeblich gestrebt habe.

지금까지 본 바로는 헤겔의 정신 현상의 움직임은 제가 지금까지 파악한 메타 언어의 질서와 아주 정확히 맞아 떨어집니다. 그가 말한 '언어의 쪼개짐'까지도요. 결국 이미 200년 전에 아주 근사치에 가까운 진리에 대한 정답이 나왔다고 봅니다. 물론 일부 헤겔의 개인적인 선호가 반영된 부분도 있을 수 있고, 착오도 있을 수 있겠지만 순수한 이성적 직관과 감성적 눈초리만으로 위에 약술한 언어 입자들의 흐름을 포착했다는 점은, 결국 헤겔로부터 시작해야겠다는 생각이 들게 합니다. 그리고 하이데거 등으로 나가야 겠어요. 


일단 헤겔의 현상학에 가장 밀접한 연구를 진행한 질 들뢰즈(1968: 1-31)의 '거짓말'(Preface)을 봅시다. 영어의 '서문'(Preface)은 얼굴(face)의 겉(pre-)이므로 바로 '마스크'(Mascara)일 것으로 일단 추정합니다. 질 들뢰즈(1968)의 '거짓말' 전문을 보기에 앞서 우리가 '인지'하는 관념(conception)의 실체란 무엇인가, 이런 의문이 든다는 점을 먼저 기록해둡니다. 


"When Nietzsche says that the Overman resembles Borgia rather than Parsifal, or when he suggests that the Overman belongs at once to both the Jesuit Order and the Prussian officer corps, we can understand these texts only by taking them for what they are: the remarks of a director indicating how the Overman should be ‘played’."(Deleuze, 1968:9)

언어 대차 대조표처럼 하나의 연극이 이 거대한 '언어 극장'(Oedipus Complex)에서 벌어지는 것은 아닌가 이런 생각이 듭니다. 질 들뢰즈의 천재적인 직관처럼 니체의 Borgia는 차변일 겁니다. 독일어의 Borg는 바로 차용(借用)이니까요. 그 대항축으로 Parsifal이 등장하는데요 '갈라짐'(Parse)과 '추락'(fall)이라는 헤겔과 하이데거의 공식이 맞는 듯 합니다. Parsifal의 또 다른 이름인 Percival(Authur 왕 이야기에 등장하는 궁정 기사. 독일어형은 Parzival인데 이쪽 현전하는 현상학적 존재의 집이 할당되는 것 같습니다.

     (01) Parzelle 한 구획의 토지, 한 필지
     (02) Parzellenwirtschaft 영세 농지 경영
     (03) parzellieren 분할하다, 분양하다

이하, 질 들뢰즈(1968)의 '거짓말', 혹은 '마스크'의 전문입니다. 


Introduction: Repetition and Difference
 
Repetition is not generality. Repetition and generality must be distinguished in several ways. Every formula which implies their confusion is regrettable: for example, when we say that two things are as alike as two drops of water; or when we identify ‘there is only a science of the general’ with ‘there is only a science of that which is repeated’. Repetition and resemblance are different in kind - extremely so.

Generality presents two major orders: the qualitative order of resemblances and the quantitative order of equivalences. Cycles and equalities are their respective symbols. But in any case, generality expresses a point of view according to which one term may be exchanged or substituted for another. The exchange or substitution of particulars defines our conduct in relation to generality. That is why the empiricists are not wrong to present general ideas as particular ideas in themselves, so long as they add the belief that each of these can be replaced by any other particular idea which resembles it in relation to a given word. By contrast, we can see that repetition is a necessary and justified conduct only in relation to that which cannot be replaced. Repetition as a conduct and as a point of view concerns non-exchangeable and non-substitutable singularities. Reflections, echoes, doubles and souls do not belong to -the domain of resemblance or equivalence; and it is no more possible to exchange one’s soul than it is to substitute real twins for one another. If exchange is the criterion of generality, theft and gift are those of repetition. There is, therefore, an economic difference between the two.

To repeat is to behave in a certain manner, but in relation to something unique or singular which has no equal or equivalent. And perhaps this repetition at the level of external conduct echoes, for its own part, a more secret vibration which animates it, a more profound, internal repetition within the singular. This is the apparent paradox of festivals: they repeat an ‘unrepeatable’. They do not add a second and a third time to the first, but carry the first time to the ’nth’ power. With respect to this power, repetition interiorizes and thereby reverses itself: as Peguy says, it is not Federation Day which commemorates or represents the fall of the Bastille, but the fall of the Bastille which celebrates and repeats in advance all the Federation Days; or Monet’s first water lily which repeats all the others. 1 Generality, as generality of the particular, thus stands opposed to repetition as universality of the singular. The repetition of a work of art is like a singularity without concept, and it is not by chance that a poem must be learned by heart. The head is the organ of exchange, but the heart is the amorous organ of repetition. (It is true that repetition also concerns the head, but precisely
because it is its terror or paradox.) Pius Servien rightly distinguished two languages: the language of science, dominated by the symbol of equality, in which each term may be replaced by others; and lyrical language, in which every term is irreplaceable and can only be repeated. Repetition can always be ‘represented’ as extreme resemblance or perfect equivalence, but the fact that one can pass by degrees from one thing to another does not prevent their being different in kind.
 
On the other hand, generality belongs to the order of laws. However, law determines only the resemblance of the subjects ruled by it, along with their equivalence to terms which it designates. Far from grounding repetition, law shows, rather, how repetition would remain impossible for pure subjects of law - particulars. It condemns them to change. As an empty form of difference, an invariable form of variation, a law compels its subjects to illustrate it only at the cost of their own change. No doubt there are as many constants as variables among the terms designated by laws, and as many permanences and perseverations as there are fluxes and variations in nature. However, a perseveration is still not a repetition. The constants of one law are in turn variables of a more general law, just as the hardest rocks become soft and fluid matter on the geological scale of millions of years. So at each level, it is in relation to large, permanent natural objects that the subject of a law experiences its own powerlessness to repeat and discovers that this powerlessness is already contained in the object, reflected in the permanent object wherein it sees itself condemned. Law unites the change of the water and the permanence of the river. Elie Faure said of Watteau: ‘He imbued with the utmost transitoriness those things which our gaze encounters as the most enduring, namely space and forests.’ This is the eighteenth-century method. Wolmar, in La Nouvelle Hiloi’se, made a system of it: the impossibility of repetition, and change as a general condition to which all particular creatures are subject by the law of Nature, were understood in relation to fixed terms (themselves, no doubt, variables in relation to other permanences and in function of other, more general laws). This is the meaning of the grove, the grotto and the ‘sacred’ object. Saint-Preux learns that he cannot repeat, not only because of his own change and that of Julie, but also because of the great natural permanences, which assume a symbolic value and exclude him no less from true repetition. If repetition is possible, it is due to miracle rather than to law. It is against the law: against the similar form and the equivalent content of law. If repetition can be found, even in nature, it is in the name of a power which affirms itself against the law, which works underneath laws, perhaps superior to laws. If repetition exists, it expresses at once a singularity opposed to the general, a universality opposed to the particular, a distinctive opposed to the ordinary, an instantaneity opposed to variation and an eternity opposed to permanence. In every respect, repetition is a transgression. It puts law into question, it denounces its nominal or general character in favour of a more profound and more artistic reality.

From the point of view of scientific experiment, it seems difficult to deny a relationship between repetition and law. However, we must ask under what conditions experimentation ensures repetition. Natural phenomena are produced in a free state, where any inference is possible among the vast cycles of resemblance: in this sense, everything reacts on everything else, and everything resembles everything else (resemblance of the diverse with itself). However, experimentation constitutes relatively closed environments in which phenomena are defined in terms of a small number of chosen factors (a minimum of two - for example, Space and Time for the movement of bodies in a vacuum). Consequently, there is no reason to question the application of mathematics to physics: physics is already mathematical, since the closed environments or chosen factors also constitute systems of geometrical co-ordinates. In these conditions, phenomena necessarily appear as equal to a certain quantitative relation between the chosen factors. Experimentation is thus a matter of substituting one order of generality for another: an order of equality for an order of resemblance. Resemblances are unpacked in order to discover an equality which allows the identification of a phenomenon under the particular conditions of the experiment. Repetition appears here only in the passage from one order of generality to another, emerging with the help of - or on the occasion of - this passage. It is as if repetition momentarily appeared between or underneath the two generalities. Here too, however, there is a risk of mistaking a difference in kind for a difference of degree. For generality only represents and presupposes a hypothetical repetition: ‘given the same circumstances, then...’. This formula says that in similar situations one will always be able to select and retain the same factors, which represent the being-equal of the phenomena. This, however, does not account for what gives rise to repetition, nor for what is categorical or important for repetition in principle (what is important in principle is ‘n’ times as the power of a single time, without the need to pass through a second or a third time). In its essence, repetition refers to a singular power which differs in kind from generality, even when, in order to appear, it takes advantage of the artificial passage from one order of generality to another.
 
Expecting repetition from the law of nature is the ‘Stoic’ error. The wise must be converted into the virtuous; the dream of finding a law which would make repetition possible passes over to the moral sphere. There is always a task to recommence, a fidelity to be revived within a daily life indistinguishable from the reaffirmation of Duty. Biichner makes Danton say:
 
‘It is so wearisome. First you put on your shirt, then your trousers; you drag yourself into bed at night and in the morning drag yourself out again; and always you put one foot in front of the other. There is little hope that it will ever change. Millions have always done it like that and millions more will do so after us. Moreover, since we’re made up of two halves which both do the same thing, everything’s done twice. It’s all very boring and very, very sad.’
 
However, what good is moral law if it does not sanctify reiteration, above all if it does not make reiteration possible and give us a legislative power from which we are excluded by the law of nature? Moralists sometimes present the categories of Good and Evil in the following manner: every time we try to repeat according to nature or as natural beings (repetition of a pleasure, of a past, of a passion) we throw ourselves into a demonic and already damned exercise which can end only in despair or boredom. The Good, by contrast, holds out the possibility of repetition, of successful repetition and of the spirituality of repetition, because it depends not upon a law of nature but on a law of duty, of which, as moral beings, we cannot be subjects without also being legislators. What is Kant’s ‘highest test’ if not a criterion which should decide what can in principle be reproduced -in other words, what can be repeated without contradiction in the form of moral law? The man of duty invented a ‘test’ of repetition; he decided what in principle could be repeated. He thought he had thereby defeated both the demonic and the wearisome. Moreover, as an echo of Danton’s concerns or a response to them, is there not a moralism in that repetition apparatus described with such precision by Kant’s biographers, right down to the astonishing garters that he made for himself, and the regularity of his daily promenades (in the sense that neglecting one’s toilet and missing exercise are among those conducts whose maxim cannot, without contradiction, be regarded as a universal law, nor, therefore, be the object of rightful repetition)?
 
Conscience, however, suffers from the following ambiguity: it can be conceived only by supposing the moral law to be external, superior and indifferent to the natural law; but the application of the moral law can be conceived only by restoring to conscience itself the image and the model of the law of nature. As a result, the moral law, far from giving us true repetition, still leaves us in generality. This time, the generality is not that of nature but that of habit as a second nature. It is useless to point to the existence of immoral or bad habits: it is the form of habit - or, as Bergson used to say, the habit of acquiring habits (the whole of obligation) - which is essentially moral or has the form of the good. Furthermore, in this whole or generality of habit we again find the two major orders: that of resemblance, in the variable conformity of the elements of action with a given model in so far as the habit has not been acquired; and that of equivalence, with the equality of the elements of action in different situations once the habit has been acquired. As a result, habit never gives rise to true repetition: sometimes the action changes and is perfected while the intention remains constant; sometimes the action remains the same in different contexts and with different intentions. There again, if repetition is possible, it would appear only between or beneath the two generalities of perfection and integration, testifying to the presence of a quite different power, at the risk of overturning these two generalities.
 
If repetition is possible, it is as much opposed to moral law as it is to natural law. There are two known ways to overturn moral law. One is by ascending towards the principles: challenging the law as secondary, derived, borrowed or ‘general’; denouncing it as involving a second-hand principle which diverts an original force or usurps an original power. The other way, by contrast, is to overturn the law by descending towards the consequences, to which one submits with a too-perfect attention to detail. By adopting the law, a falsely submissive soul manages to evade it and to taste pleasures it was supposed to forbid. We can see this in demonstration by absurdity and working to rule, but also in some forms of masochistic behaviour which mock by submission. The first way of overturning the law is ironic, where irony appears as an art of principles, of ascent towards the principles and of overturning principles. The second is humour, which is an art of consequences and descents, of suspensions and falls. Must we understand that repetition appears in both this suspense and this ascent, as though existence recommenced and ‘reiterated’ itself once it is no longer constrained by laws? Repetition belongs to humour and irony; it is by nature transgression or exception, always revealing a singularity opposed to the particulars subsumed under laws, a universal opposed to the generalities which give rise to laws.
 
There is a force common to Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. (Peguy would have to be added in order to form the triptych of priest, Antichrist and Catholic. Each of the three, in his own way, makes repetition not only a power peculiar to language and thought, a superior pathos and pathology, but also the fundamental category of a philosophy of the future. To each corresponds a Testament as well as a Theatre, a conception of the theatre, and a hero of repetition as a principal character in this theatre: Job-Abraham, DionysusZarathustra, Joan of Arc-Clio). What separates them is considerable, evident and well-known. But nothing can hide this prodigious encounter in relation to a philosophy of repetition: they oppose repetition to all forms of generality. Nor do they take the word ‘repetition’ in a metaphorical sense: on the contrary, they have a way of taking it literally and of introducing it into their style. We can - or rather, must - first of all list the principal propositions which indicate the points on which they coincide:
 
1. Make something new of repetition itself: connect it with a test, with a selection or selective test; make it the supreme object of the will and of freedom. Kierkegaard specifies that it is not a matter of drawing something new from repetition, of extracting something new from it. Only contemplation or the mind which contemplates from without ‘extracts’. It is rather a matter of acting, of making repetition as such a novelty; that is, a freedom and a task of freedom. In the case of Nietzsche: liberate the will from everything which binds it by making repetition the very object of willing. No doubt it is repetition which already binds; but if we die of repetition we are also saved and healed by it - healed, above all, by the other repetition. The whole mystical game of loss and salvation is therefore contained in repetition, along with the whole theatrical game of life and death and the whole positive game of illness and health (cf. Zarathustra ill and Zarathustra convalescent by virtue of one and the same power which is that of repetition in the eternal return).
 
2. In consequence, oppose repetition to the laws of nature. Kierkegaard declares that he does not speak at all of repetition in nature, of cycles and seasons, exchanges and equalities. Furthermore, if repetition concerns the most interior element of the will, this is because everything changes around the will, in accordance with the law of nature. According to the law of nature, repetition is impossible. For this reason, Kierkegaard condemns as aesthetic repetition every attempt to obtain repetition from the laws of nature by identifying with the legislative principle, whether in the Epicurean or the Stoic manner. It will be said that the situation is not so clear with Nietzsche. Nietzsche’s declarations are nevertheless explicit. If he discovers repetition in the Physis itself, this is because he discovers in the Physis something superior to the reign of laws: a will willing itself through all change, a power opposed to law, an interior of the earth opposed to the laws of its surface. Nietzsche opposes ‘his’ hypothesis to the cyclical hypothesis. He conceives of repetition in the eternal return as Being, but he opposes this being to every legal form, to the being-similar as much as to the being-equal. How could the thinker who goes furthest in criticising the notion of law reintroduce eternal return as a law of nature? How could such a connoisseur of the Greeks be justified in regarding his own thought as prodigious and new, if he were content to formulate that natural platitude, that generality regarding nature well known to the Ancients? On two occasions, Zarathustra corrects erroneous interpretations of the eternal return: with anger, directed at his demon (‘Spirit of Gravity ... do not treat this too lightly’); with kindness, directed at his
animals (‘O buffoons and barrel-organs ... you have already made a refrain out of it’). The refrain is the eternal return as cycle or circulation, as being-similar and being-equal -in short, as natural animal certitude and as sensible law of nature.

3. Oppose repetition to moral law, to the point where it becomes the suspension of ethics, a thought beyond good and evil. Repetition appears as the logos of the solitary and the singular, the logos of the ‘private thinker’. Both Kierkegaard and Nietzsche develop the opposition between the private thinker, the thinker-comet and bearer of repetition, and the public professor and doctor of law, whose second-hand discourse proceeds by mediation and finds its moralising source in the generality of concepts (cf. Kierkegaard against Hegel, Nietzsche against Kant and Hegel; and from this point of view, Peguy against the Sorbonne). Job is infinite contestation and Abraham infinite resignation, but these are one and the same thing. Job challenges the law in an ironic manner, refusing all second-hand explanations and dismissing the general in order to reach the most singular as principle or as universal. Abraham submits humorously to the law, but finds in that submission precisely the singularity of his only son whom the law commanded him to sacrifice. As Kierkegaard understands it, repetition is the transcendent correlate shared by the psychical intentions of contestation and resignation. (We rediscover the two aspects in Peguy’s doubling of Joan of Arc and Gervaise.) In Nietzsche’s striking atheism, hatred of the law and amor fati (love of fate), aggression and acquiescence are the two faces of Zarathustra, gathered from the Bible and turned back against it. Further, in a certain sense one can see Zarathustra’s moral test of repetition as competing with Kant. The eternal return says: whatever you will, will it in such a manner that you also will its eternal return. There is a ‘formalism’ here which overturns Kant on his own ground, a test which goes further since, instead of relating repetition to a supposed moral law, it seems to make repetition itself the only form of a law beyond morality. In reality, however, things are even more complicated. The form of repetition in the eternal return is the brutal form of the immediate, that of the universal and the singular reunited, which dethrones every general law, dissolves the mediations and annihilates the particulars subjected to the law. Just as irony and black humour are combined in Zarathustra, so there is a within-the-law and a beyond-the-law united in the eternal return.
 
4. Oppose repetition not only to the generalities of habit but also to the particularities of memory. For it is perhaps habit which manages to ‘draw’ something new from a repetition contemplated from without. With habit, we act only on the condition that there is a little Self within us which contemplates: it is this which extracts the new - in other words, the general - from the pseudo-repetition of particular cases. Memory, then, perhaps recovers the particulars dissolved in generality. These psychological movements are of little consequence: for both Nietzsche and Kierkegaard they fade away in the face of repetition proposed as the double condemnation of habit and memory. In this way, repetition is the thought of the future: it is opposed to both the ancient category of reminiscence and the modern category of habitus. It is in repetition and by repetition that Forgetting becomes a positive power while the unconscious becomes a positive and superior unconscious (for example, forgetting as a force is an integral part of the lived experience of eternal return). Everything is summed up in power. When Kierkegaard speaks of repetition as the second power of consciousness, ‘second’ means not a second time but the infinite which belongs to a single time, the eternity which belongs to an instant, the unconscious which belongs to consciousness, the ’nth’ power. And when Nietzsche presents the eternal return as the immediate expression of the will to power, will to power does not at all mean ‘to want power’ but, on the contrary: whatever you will, carry it to the ’nth’ power - in other words, separate out the superior form by virtue of the selective operation of thought in the eternal return, by virtue of the singularity of repetition in the eternal return itself. Here, in the superior form of everything that is, we find the immediate identity of the eternal return and the Overman.

We are not suggesting any resemblance whatsoever between Nietzsche’s Dionysus and Kierkegaard’s God. On the contrary, we believe that the difference is insurmountable. But this is all the more reason to ask why their coincidence concerning this fundamental objective, the theme of repetition, even though they understand this objective differently? Kierkegaard and Nietzsche are among those who bring to philosophy new means of expression. In relation to them we speak readily of an overcoming of philosophy. Furthermore, in all their work, movement is at issue. Their objection to Hegel is that he does not go beyond false movement - in other words, the abstract logical movement of ‘mediation’. They want to put metaphysics in motion, in action. They want to make it act, and make it carry out immediate acts. It is not enough, therefore, for them to propose a new representation of movement; representation is already mediation. Rather, it is a question of producing within the work a movement capable of affecting the mind outside of all representation; it is a question of making movement itself a work, without interposition; of substituting direct signs for mediate representations; of inventing vibrations, rotations, whirlings, gravitations, dances or leaps which directly touch the mind. This is the idea of a man of the theatre, the idea of a director before his time. In this sense, something completely new begins with Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. They no longer reflect on the theatre in the Hegelian manner. Neither do they set up a philosophical theatre. They invent an incredible equivalent of theatre within philosophy, thereby founding simultaneously this theatre of the future and a new philosophy. It will be said that, at least from the point of view of theatre, there was no production: neither the profession of priest and Copenhagen around 1840, nor the break with Wagner and Bayreuth, was a favourable condition. One thing, however, is certain: when Kierkegaard speaks of ancient theatre and modern drama, the environment has already changed; we are no longer in the element of reflection. We find here a thinker who lives the problem of masks, who experiences the inner emptiness of masks and seeks to fill it, to complete it, albeit with the ‘absolutely different’ - that is, by putting into it all the difference between the finite and the infinite, thereby creating the idea of a theatre of humour and of faith. When Kierkegaard explains that the knight of faith so resembles a bourgeois in his Sunday best as to be capable of being mistaken for one, this philosophical instruction must be taken as the remark of a director showing how the knight of faith should be played. And when he comments on job or Abraham, when he imagines the variations of Agnes and the Triton, he rewrites the tale in a manner which is clearly that of a scenario. Mozart’s music resonates even in Abraham and job; it is a matter of ‘leaping’ to the tune of this music. ‘I look only at movements’ is the language of a director who poses the highest theatrical problem, the problem of a movement which would directly touch the soul, which would be that of the souls.

Even more so with Nietzsche. The Birth of Tragedy is not a reflection on ancient theatre so much as the practical foundation of a theatre of the future, the opening up of a path along which Nietzsche still thinks it possible to push Wagner. The break with Wagner is not a matter of theory, nor of music; it concerns the respective roles of text, history, noise, music, light, song, dance and decor in this theatre of which Nietzsche dreams. Zarathustra incorporates the two attempts at dramatizing Empedocles. Moreover, if Bizet is better than Wagner, it is from the point of view of theatre and for Zarathustra’s dances. Nietzsche’s reproach to Wagner is that he inverted and distorted ‘movement’, giving us a nautical theatre in which we must paddle and swim rather than one in which we can walk and dance. Zarathustra is conceived entirely within philosophy, but also entirely for the stage. Everything in it is scored and visualised, put in motion and made to walk or dance. How can it be read without searching for the exact sound of the cries of the higher man, how can the prologue be read without staging the episode of the tightrope walker which opens the whole story? At certain moments, it is a comic opera about terrible things; and it is not by chance that Nietzsche speaks of the comic character of the Overman. Remember the song of Ariadne from the mouth of the old Sorcerer: here, two masks are superimposed - that of a young woman, almost of a Kore, which has just been laid over the mask of a repugnant old man. The actor must play the role of an old man playing the role of the Koye. Here too, for Nietzsche, it is a matter of filling the inner emptiness of the mask within a theatrical space: by multiplying the superimposed masks and inscribing the omnipresence of Dionysus in that superimposition, by inserting both the infinity of real movement and the form of the absolute difference given in the repetition of eternal return. When Nietzsche says that the Overman resembles Borgia rather than Parsifal, or when he suggests that the Overman belongs at once to both the Jesuit Order and the Prussian officer corps, we can understand these texts only by taking them for what they are: the remarks of a director indicating how the Overman should be ‘played’.
 
Theatre is real movement, and it extracts real movement from all the arts it employs. This is what we are told: this movement, the essence and the interiority of movement, is not opposition, not mediation, but repetition. Hegel is denounced as the one who proposes an abstract movement of concepts instead of a movement of the Physis and the Psyche. Hegel substitutes the abstract relation of the particular to the concept in general for the true relation of the singular and the universal in the Idea. He thus remains in the reflected element of ‘representation’, within simple generality. He represents concepts instead of dramatizing Ideas: he creates a false theatre, a false drama, a false movement. We must see how Hegel betrays and distorts the immediate in order to ground his dialectic in that incomprehension, and to introduce mediation in a movement which is no more than that of his own thought and its generalities. When we say, on the contrary, that movement is repetition and that this is our true theatre, we are not speaking of the effort of the actor who ‘repeats’ because he has not yet learned the part. We have in mind the theatrical space, the emptiness of that space, and the manner in which it is filled and determined by the signs and masks through which the actor plays a role which plays other roles; we think of how repetition is woven from one distinctive point to another, including the differences within itself. (When Marx also criticizes the abstract false movement or mediation of the Hegelians, he finds himself drawn to an idea, which he indicates rather than develops, an essentially ‘theatrical’ idea: to the extent that history is theatre, then repetition, along with the tragic and the comic within repetition, forms a condition of movement under which the ‘actors’ or the ‘heroes’ produce something effectively new in history.) The theatre of repetition is opposed to the theatre of representation, just as movement is opposed to the concept and to representation which refers it back to the concept. In the theatre of repetition, we experience pure forces, dynamic lines in space which act without intermediary upon the spirit, and link it directly with nature and history, with a language which speaks before words, with gestures which develop before organised bodies, with masks before faces, with spectres and phantoms before characters - the whole apparatus of repetition as a ‘terrible power’.
 
It then becomes easy to speak of the differences between Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. Even this question, however, must no longer be posed at the speculative level of the ultimate nature of the God of Abraham or the Dionysus of Zarathustra. It is rather a matter of knowing what it means to ‘produce movement’, to repeat or to obtain repetition. Is it a matter of leaping, as Kierkegaard believes? Or is it rather a matter of dancing, as Nietzsche thinks? He does not like the confusion of dancing and leaping (only Zarathustra’s ape, his demon, his dwarf, his buffoon, leaps).
 
Kierkegaard offers us a theatre of faith; he opposes spiritual movement, the movement of faith, to logical movement. He can thus invite us to go beyond all aesthetic repetition, beyond irony and even humour, all the while painfully aware that he offers us only the aesthetic, ironic and humoristic image of such a going-beyond. With Nietzsche, it is a theatre of unbelief, of movement as Physis, already a theatre of cruelty. Here, humour and irony are indispensable and fundamental operations of nature. And what would eternal return be, if we forgot that it is a vertiginous movement endowed with a force: not one which causes the return of the Same in general, but one which selects, one which expels as well as creates, destroys as well as produces? Nietzsche’s leading idea is to ground the repetition in eternal return on both the death of God and the dissolution of the self. However, it is a quite different alliance in the theatre of faith: Kierkegaard dreams of an alliance between a God and a self rediscovered. All sorts of differences follow: is the movement in the sphere of the mind, or in the entrails of the earth which knows neither God nor self? Where will it be better protected against generalities, against mediations? Is repetition supernatural, to the extent that it is over and above the laws of nature? Or is it rather the most natural will of Nature in itself and willing itself as Physis, because Nature is by itself superior to its own kingdoms and its own laws? Has Kierkegaard not mixed all kinds of things together in his condemnation of ‘aesthetic’ repetition: a pseudo-repetition attributable to general laws of nature and a true repetition in nature itself; a pathological repetition of the passions and a repetition in art and the work of art? We cannot now resolve any of these problems; it has been enough for us to find theatrical confirmation of an irreducible difference between generality and repetition.
 
Repetition and generality are opposed from the point of view of conduct and from the point of view of law. It remains to specify a third opposition from the point of view of concepts or representation. Let us pose a question quid juris: a concept may be in principle the concept of a particular existing thing, thus having an infinite comprehension. Infinite comprehension is the correlate of an extension - 1. It is very important that this infinity of comprehension be supposed actual, not virtual or simply indefinite. It is on this condition that predicates in the form of moments of concepts are preserved, and have an effect on the subject to which they are attributed. Infinite comprehension thus makes possible remembering and recognition, memory and self-consciousness (even when these two faculties are not themselves infinite). The relation of a concept to its object under this double aspect, in the form that it assumes in this memory and this selfconsciousness, is called representation. From this may be drawn the principles of a vulgarized Leibnizianism. According to a principle of difference, every determination is conceptual in the last instance, or actually belongs to the comprehension of a concept. According to a principle of sufficient reason, there is always one concept per particular thing. According to the reciprocal principle of the identity of indiscernibles, there is one and only one thing per concept. Together, these principles expound a theory of difference as conceptual difference, or develop the account of representation as mediation.

However, a concept can always be blocked at the level of each of its determinations or each of the predicates that it includes. In so far as it serves as a determination, a predicate must remain fixed in the concept while becoming something else in the thing (animal becomes something other in man and in horse; humanity something other in Peter and in Paul). This is why the comprehension of the concept is infinite; having become other in the thing, the predicate is like the object of another predicate in the concept. But this is also why each determination remains general or defines a resemblance, to the extent that it remains fixed in the concept and applicable by right to an infinity of things. Here, the concept is thus constituted in such a fashion that, in its real use, its comprehension extends to infinity, but in its logical use, this comprehension is always liable to an artificial blockage. Every logical limitation of the comprehension of a concept endows it with an extension greater than 1, in principle infinite, and thus of a generality such that no existing individual can correspond to it hic et nunc (rule of the inverse relation of comprehension and extension). Thus, the principle of difference understood as difference in the concept does not oppose but, on the contrary, allows the greatest space possible for the apprehension of resemblances. Even from the point of view of conundrums, the question ‘What difference is there?’ may always be transformed into: ‘What resemblance is there?’ But above all, in classification, the determination of species implies and supposes a continual evaluation of resemblances. Undoubtedly, resemblance is not a partial identity, but that is only because the predicate in the concept is not, by virtue of its becoming other in the thing, a part of that thing.

We wish to indicate the difference between this type of artificial blockage and a quite different type which must be called a natural blockage of the concept. One refers to logic pure and simple, but the other refers to a transcendental logic or a dialectic of existence. Let us suppose that a concept, taken at a particular moment when its comprehension is finite, is forcibly assigned a place in space and time - that is, an existence corresponding normally to the extension = 1. We would say, then, that a genus or species passes into existence hic et nunc without any augmentation of comprehension. There is a rift between that extension = 1 imposed upon the concept and the extension - - that its weak comprehension demands in principle. The result will be a ‘discrete extension’ - that is, a pullulation of individuals absolutely identical in respect of their concept, and participatin in the same singularity in existence (the paradox of doubles or twins). This phenomenon of discrete extension implies a natural blockage of the concept, different in kind from a logical blockage: it forms a true repetition in existence rather than an order of resemblance in thought. There is a significant difference between generality, which always designates a logical power of concepts, and repetition, which testifies to their powerlessness or their real limits. Repetition is the pure fact of a concept with finite comprehension being forced to pass as such into existence: can we find examples of such a passage? Epicurean atoms would be one: individuals localised in space, they nevertheless have a meagre comprehension, which is made up for in discrete extension, to the point where there exists an infinity of atoms of the same shape and size. The existence of Epicurean atoms may be doubted. On the other hand, the existence of words, which are in a sense linguistic atoms, cannot be doubted. Words possess a comprehension which is necessarily finite, since they are by nature the objects of a merely nominal definition. We have here a reason why the comprehension of the concept cannot extend to infinity: we define a word by only a finite number of words. Nevertheless, speech and writing, from which words are inseparable, give them an existence hic et nunc; a genus thereby passes into existence as such; and here again extension is made up for in dispersion, in discreteness, under the sign of a repetition which forms the real power of language in speech and writing.

The question is: are there other natural blockages besides those of discrete extension and finite comprehension? Let us assume a concept with indefinite comprehension (virtually infinite). However far one pursues that comprehension, one can always think that it subsumes   perfectly identical objects. By contrast with the actual infinite, where the concept is sufficient by right to distinguish its object from every other object, in this case the concept can pursue its comprehension indefinitely, always subsuming a plurality of objects which is itself indefinite. Here again, the concept is the Same - indefinitely the same - for objects which are distinct. We must therefore recognise the existence of non-conceptual differences between these objects. It is Kant who best indicates the correlation between objects endowed with only an indefinite specification, and purely spatio-temporal or oppositional, non-conceptual determinations (the paradox of symmetrical objects). 8 However, these determinations are precisely only the figures of repetition: space and time are themselves repetitive milieux; and real opposition is not a maximum of difference but a minimum of repetition - a repetition reduced to two, echoing and returning on itself; a repetition which has found the means to define itself. Repetition thus appears as difference without a concept, repetition which escapes indefinitely continued conceptual difference. It expresses a power peculiar to the existent, a stubbornness of the existent in intuition, which resists every specification by concepts no matter how far this is taken. However far you go in the concept, Kant says, you can always repeat - that is, make several objects correspond to it, or at least two: one for the left and one for the right, one for the more and one for the less, one for the positive and one for the negative.

Such a situation may be better understood if we consider that concepts with indefinite comprehension are concepts of Nature. As such, they are always in something else: they are not in Nature but in the mind which contemplates it or observes it, and represents it to itself. That is why it is said that Nature is alienated mind or alienated concept, opposed to itself. Corresponding to such concepts are those objects which themselves lack memory - that is, which neither possess nor collect in themselves their own moments. The question is asked why Nature repeats: because it is partes extra partes, mens momentanea. Novelty then passes to the mind which represents itself: because the mind has a memory or acquires habits, it is capable of forming concepts in general and of drawing something new, of subtracting something new from the repetition that it contemplates.

Concepts with finite comprehension are nominal concepts; concepts with indefinite comprehension but without memory are concepts of Nature. Yet these two cases still do not exhaust the examples of natural blockage. Take an individual notion or a particular representation with infinite comprehension, endowed with memory but lacking selfconsciousness. The comprehensive representation is indeed in-itself, the memory is there, embracing all the particularity of an act, a scene, an event or a being. What is missing, however, for a determinate natural reason, is the for-itself of consciousness or recognition. What is missing in the memory is remembrance - or rather, the working through of memory. Consciousness establishes between the I and the representation a relation much more profound than that which appears in the expression ‘I have a representation’: it relates the representation to the I as if to a free faculty which does not allow itself to be confined within any one of its products, but for which each product is already thought and recognised as past, the occasion of a determinant change in inner meaning. When the consciousness of knowledge or the working through of memory is missing, the knowledge in itself is only the repetition of its object: it is played, that is to say repeated, enacted instead of being known. Repetition here appears as the unconscious of the free concept, of knowledge or of memory, the unconscious of representation. It fell to Freud to assign the natural reason for such a blockage: repression or resistance, which makes repetition itself a veritable ‘constraint’, a ‘compulsion’. Here, then, is a third case of blockage, one which concerns, this time, the concepts of freedom. Here too, from the standpoint of a certain Freudianism, we can discover the principle of an inverse relation between repetition and consciousness, repetition and remembering, repetition and recognition (the paradox of the ‘burials’ or buried objects): the less one remembers, the less one is conscious of remembering one’s past, the more one repeats it - remember and work through the memory in order not to repeat it. Self-consciousness in recognition appears as the faculty of the future or the function of the future, the function of the new. Is it not true that the only dead who return are those whom one has buried too quickly and too deeply, without paying them the necessary respects, and that remorse testifies less to an excess of memory than to a powerlessness or to a failure in the working through of a memory?

There is a tragic and a comic repetition. Indeed, repetition always appears twice, once in the tragic destiny and once in the comic aspect. In the theatre, the hero repeats precisely because he is separated from an essential, infinite knowledge. This knowledge is in him, it is immersed in him and acts in him, but acts like something hidden, like a blocked representation. The difference between the comic and the tragic pertains to two elements: first, the nature of the repressed knowledge - in the one case immediate natural knowledge, a simple given of common sense, in the other terrible esoteric knowledge; second, as a result, the manner in which the character is excluded from this knowledge, the manner in which ‘he does not know that he knows’. In general the practical problem consists in this: this unknown knowledge must be represented as bathing the whole scene, impregnating all the elements of the play and comprising in itself all the powers of mind and nature, but at the same time the hero cannot represent it to himself - on the contrary, he must enact it, play it and repeat it until the acute moment that Aristotle called ‘recognition’. At this point, repetition and representation confront one another and merge, without, however, confusing their two levels, the one reflecting itself in and being sustained by the other, the knowledge as it is represented on stage and as repeated by the actor then being recognised as the same.

The discrete, the alienated and the repressed are the three cases of natural blockage, corresponding respectively to nominal concepts, concepts of nature and concepts of freedom. In all these cases, however, conceptual identity or Sameness of representation is invoked to account for repetition: repetition is attributed to elements which are really distinct but nevertheless share strictly the same concept. Repetition thus appears as a difference, but a difference absolutely without concept; in this sense, an indifferent difference. The words ‘really’, ‘strictly’, ‘absolutely’ are supposed to refer to the phenomenon of natural blockage, in opposition to logical blockage which only determines a generality. However, an important drawback compromises this whole endeavour. As long as we invoke absolute conceptual identity for distinct objects, we suggest a purely negative explanation, an explanation by default. The fact that this default should be grounded in the nature of concepts or representations themselves changes nothing. In the first case, repetition occurs because nominal concepts naturally possess a finite comprehension. In the second case, repetition occurs because concepts of nature are naturally devoid of memory, alienated and outside themselves. In the third case, because the concept of freedom remains unconscious while memories and representations remain repressed. In all these cases, that which repeats does so only by dint of not ‘comprehending’, not remembering, not knowing or not being conscious. Throughout, the inadequacy of concepts and of their representative concomitants (memory and self-consciousness, remembrance and recognition) is supposed to account for repetition. Such is therefore the default of every argument grounded in the form of identity in the concept: these arguments give us only a nominal definition and a negative explanation of repetition. No doubt the formal identity which corresponds to simple logical blockage may be opposed to real identity (the Same) as this appears in natural blockage. But natural blockage itself requires a positive supra-conceptual force capable of explaining it, and of thereby explaining repetition.

Let us return to the example of psychoanalysis: we repeat because we repress ... Freud was never satisfied with such a negative schema, in which repetition is explained by amnesia. It is true that, from the beginning, repression was considered a positive power. However, he borrowed this positivity from the pleasure principle or from the reality principle: it was merely a derived positivity, one of opposition. The turning point of Freudianism appears in Beyond the Pleasure Principle: the death instinct is discovered, not in connection with the destructive tendencies, not in connection with aggressivity, but as a result of a direct consideration of repetition phenomena. Strangely, the death instinct serves as a positive, originary principle for repetition; this is its domain and its meaning. It plays the role of a transcendental principle, whereas the pleasure principle is only psychological. For this reason, it is above all silent (not given in experience), whereas the pleasure principle is noisy. The first question, then, is: How is it that the theme of death, which appears to draw together the most negative elements of psychological life, can be in itself the most positive element, transcendentally positive, to the point of affirming repetition? How can it be related to a primordial instinct? But a second question immediately arises: Under what form is repetition affirmed and prescribed by the death instinct? Ultimately, it is a question of the relation between repetition and disguises. Do the disguises found in the work of dreams or symptoms - condensation, displacement, dramatisation -rediscover while attenuating a bare, brute repetition (repetition of the Same)? From the first theory of repression, Freud indicated another path: Dora elaborates her own role, and repeats her love for the father, only through other roles filled by others, which she herself adopts in relation to those others (K., Frau K., the governess ...). The disguises and the variations, the masks or costumes, do not come ‘over and above’: they are, on the contrary, the internal genetic elements of repetition itself, its integral and constituent parts. This path would have been able to lead the analysis of the unconscious towards a veritable theatre. However, if it did not do so, this was because Freud was unable to prevent himself maintaining the model of a brute repetition, at least as a tendency. We see this when he attributes fixation to the Id: disguise is then understood from the perspective of a simple opposition of forces; disguised repetition is only the fruit of a secondary compromise between the opposed forces of the Ego and the Id. Even beyond the pleasure principle, the form of a bare repetition persists, since Freud interprets the death instinct as a tendency to return to the state of inanimate matter, one which upholds the model of a wholly physical or material repetition.

Death has nothing to do with a material model. On the contrary, the death instinct may be understood in relation to masks and costumes. Repetition is truly that which disguises itself in constituting itself, that which constitutes itself only by disguising itself. It is not underneath the masks, but is formed from one mask to another, as though from one distinctive point to another, from one privileged instant to another, with and within the variations. The masks do not hide anything except other masks. There is no first term which is repeated, and even our childhood love for the mother repeats other adult loves with regard to other women, rather like the way in which the hero of In Search of Lost Time replays with his mother Swann’s passion for Odette. There is therefore nothing repeated which may be isolated or abstracted from the repetition in which it was formed, but in which it is also hidden. There is no bare repetition which may be abstracted or inferred from the disguise itself. The same thing is both disguising and disguised. A decisive moment in psychoanalysis occurred when Freud gave up, in certain respects, the hypothesis of real childhood events, which would have played the part of ultimate disguised terms, in order to substitute the power of fantasy which is immersed in the death instinct, where everything is already masked and disguised. In short, repetition is in its essence symbolic; symbols or simulacra are the letter of repetition itself. Difference is included in repetition by way of disguise and by the order of the symbol. This is why the variations do not come from without, do not express a secondary compromise between a repressing instance and a repressed instance, and must not be understood on the basis of the still negative forms of opposition, reversal or overturning. The variations express, rather, the differential mechanisms which belong to the essence and origin of that which is repeated. We should even overturn the relations between ‘covered’ and ‘uncovered’ within repetition. Take an uncovered or bare repetition (repetition of the Same) such as an obsessional ceremony or a schizophrenic stereotype: the mechanical element in the repetition, the element of action apparently repeated, .serves as a cover for a more profound repetition, which is played in another dimension, a secret verticality in which the roles and masks are furnished by the death instinct. Theatre of terror, Binswanger said of schizophrenia. There, the ‘never seen’ is not the contrary of the ‘already seen’: both signify the same thing, and are lived each in the other. Nerval’s Sylvie already introduced us into this theatre, and the Gradiva, so close to a Nervalian inspiration, shows us the hero who lives at once both repetition as such and the repeated which is always disguised in the repetition. In the analysis of obsession, the appearance of the theme of death coincides with the moment at which the obsessed has command of all the characters of his drama and brings them together in a repetition of which the ‘ceremony’ is only the external envelope. The mask, the costume, the covered is everywhere the truth of the uncovered. The mask is the true subject of repetition. Because repetition differs in kind from representation, the repeated cannot be represented: rather, it must always be signified, masked by what signifies it, itself masking what it signifies.
     
I do not repeat because I repress. I repress because I repeat, I forget because I repeat. I repress, because I can live certain things or certain experiences only in the mode of repetition. I am determined to repress whatever would prevent me from living them thus: in particular, the representation which mediates the lived by relating it to the form of a similar or identical object. Eros and Thanatos are distinguished in that Eros must be repeated, can be lived only through repetition, whereas Thanatos (as transcendental principle) is that which gives repetition to Eros, that which submits Eros to repetition. Only such a point of view is capable of advancing us in the obscure problems of the origin of repression, its nature, its causes and the exact terms on which it bears. For when Freud shows -beyond repression ‘properly speaking’, which bears upon representations -the necessity of supposing a primary repression which concerns first and foremost pure presentations, or the manner in which the drives are necessarily lived, we believe that he comes closest to a positive internal principle of repetition. This later appears to him determinable in the form of the death instinct, and it is this which, far from being explained by it, must explain the blockage of representation in repression properly speaking. This is why the law of an inverse relation between repetition and remembering is in every respect hardly satisfactory, in so far as it makes repetition depend upon repression.

Freud noted from the beginning that in order to stop repeating it was not enough to remember in the abstract (without affect), nor to form a concept in general, nor even to represent the repressed event in all its particularity: it was necessary to seek out the memory there where it was, to install oneself directly in the past in order to accomplish a living connection between the knowledge and the resistance, the representation and the blockage. We are not, therefore, healed by simple anamnesis, any more than we are made ill by amnesia. Here as elsewhere, becoming conscious counts for little. The more theatrical and dramatic operation by which healing takes place - or does not take place - has a name:. transference. Now transference is still repetition: above all it is repetition.10


If repetition makes us ill, it also heals us; if it enchains and destroys us, it also frees us, testifying in both cases to its ‘demonic’ power. All cure is a voyage to the bottom of repetition. There is indeed something analogous to scientific experimentation in transference, since the patient is supposed to repeat the whole of  his isturbance in privileged, artificial conditions, taking the person of the analyst as ‘object’. In transference, however, repetition does not so much serve to identify events, persons and passions as to authenticate the roles and select the masks. Transference is not an experiment but a principle which grounds the entire analytic experience. The roles themselves are by nature erotic, but the verification of these roles appeals to the highest principle and the most profound judge, the death instinct. In effect, reflection on transference was a determinant motive behind the discovery of a ‘beyond’. In this sense, repetition constitutes by itself the selective game of our illness and our health, of our loss and our salvation. How can this game be related to the death instinct? No doubt in a sense close to that in which Miller, in his wonderful book on Rimbaud, says: ‘I realized that I was free, that the death I had gone through had liberated me.’11 It seems that the idea of a death instinct must be understood in terms of three paradoxical and complementary requirements: to give repetition an original, positive principle, but also an autonomous disguising power; and finally, to give it an immanent meaning in which terror is closely mingled with the movement of selection and freedom.


Our problem concerns the essence of repetition. It is a question of knowing why repetition cannot be explained by the form of identity in concepts or representations; in what sense it demands a superior ‘positive’ principle. This enquiry must embrace all the concepts of nature and freedom. Consider, on the border between these two cases, the repetition of a decorative motif: a figure is reproduced, while the concept remains absolutely identical ... . However, this is not how artists proceed in reality. They do not juxtapose instances of the figure, but rather each time combine an element of one instance with another element of a following instance. They introduce a disequilibrium into the dynamic process of construction, an instability, dissymmetry or gap of some kind which disappears only in the overall effect. Commenting on such a case, Levi-Strauss writes: ‘These elements interlock with each other through dislocation, and it is only at the end that the pattern achieves a stability which both confirms and belies the dynamic process according to which it has been carried out.’ 12 These remarks stand for the notion of causality in general. For it is not the elements of symmetry present which matter for artistic or natural causality, but those which are missing and are not in the cause; what matters is the possibility of the cause having less symmetry than the effect. Moreover, causality would remain eternally conjectural, a simple logical category, if that possibility were not at some moment or other effectively fulfilled. For this reason, the logical relation of causality is inseparable from a physical process of signalling, without which it would not be translated into action. By ‘signal’ we mean a system with orders of disparate size, endowed with elements of dissymmetry; by ‘sign’ we mean what happens within such a system, what flashes across the intervals when a communication takes place between disparates. The sign is indeed an effect, but an effect with two aspects: in one of these it expresses, qua sign, the productive dissymmetry; in the other it tends to cancel it. The sign is not entirely of the order of the symbol; nevertheless, it makes way for it by implying an internal difference (while leaving the conditions of its reproduction still external).

The negative expression ‘lack of symmetry’ should not mislead us: it indicates the origin and positivity of the causal process. It is positivity itself. For us, as the example of the decorative motif suggests, it is essential to break down the notion of causality in order to distinguish two types of repetition: one which concerns only the overall, abstract effect, and the other which concerns the acting cause. One is a static repetition, the other is dynamic. One results from the work, but the other is like the ‘evolution’ of a bodily movement. One refers back to a single concept, which leaves only an external difference between the ordinary instances of a figure; the other is the repetition of an internal difference which it incorporates in each of its moments, and carries from one distinctive point to another. One could try to assimilate these two repetitions by saying that the difference between the first and the second is only a matter of a change in the content of the concept, or of the figure being articulated differently, but this would be to fail to recognise the respective order of each repetition. For in the dynamic order there is no representative concept, nor any figure represented in a pre-existing space. There is an Idea, and a pure dynamism which creates a corresponding space.

Studies on rhythm or symmetry confirm this duality. A distinction is drawn between arithmetic symmetry, which refers back to a scale of whole or fractional coefficients, and geometric symmetry, based upon proportions or irrational ratios; a static symmetry which is cubic or hexagonal, and a dynamic symmetry which is pentagonal and appears in a spiral line or in a geometrically progressing pulsation - in short, in a living and mortal ‘evolution’. Now, the second of these is at the heart of the first; it is the vital, positive, active procedure. In a network of double squares, we discover radiating lines which have the centre of a pentagon or a pentagram as their asymmetrical pole. The network is like a fabric stretched upon a framework, ‘but the outline, the principal rhythm of that framework, is almost always a theme independent of the network’: such elements of dissymmetry serve as both genetic principle and principle of reflection for symmetrical figures.13 The static repetition in the network of double squares thus refers back to a dynamic repetition, formed by a pentagon and ‘the decreasing series of pentagrams which may be naturally inscribed therein’. Similarly, the study of rhythm allows us immediately to distinguish two kinds of repetition. Cadence-repetition is a regular division of time, an isochronic recurrence of identical elements. However, a period exists only in so far as it is determined by a tonic accent, commanded by intensities. Yet we would be mistaken about the function of accents if we said that they were reproduced at equal intervals. On the contrary, tonic and intensive values act by creating inequalities or incommensurabilities between metrically equivalent periods or spaces. They create distinctive points, privileged instants which always indicate a poly-rhythm. Here again, the unequal is the most positive element. Cadence is only the envelope of a rhythm, and of a relation between rhythms. The reprise of points of inequality, of inflections or of rhythmic events, is more profound than the reproduction of ordinary homogeneous elements. As a result, we should distinguish cadence-repetition and rhythm-repetition in every case, the first being only the outward appearance or the abstract effect of the second. A bare, material repetition (repetition of the Same) appears only in the sense that another repetition is disguised within it, constituting it and constituting itself in disguising itself. Even in nature, isochronic rotations are only the outward appearance of a more profound movement, the revolving cycles are only abstractions: placed together, they reveal evolutionary cycles or spirals whose principle is a variable curve, and the trajectory of which has two dissymmetrical aspects, as though it had a right and a left. It is always in this gap, which should not be confused with the negative, that creatures weave their repetition and receive at the same time the gift of living and dying.


The reproduction of the Same is not a motor of bodily movements. We know that even the simplest imitation involves a difference between inside and outside. Moreover, imitation plays only a secondary and regulatory role in the acquisition of a behaviour: it permits the correction of movements being made, but not their instigation. Learning takes place not in the relation between a representation and an action (reproduction of the Same) but in the relation between a sign and a response (encounter with the Other). Signs involve heterogeneity in at least three ways: first, in the object which bears or emits them, and is necessarily on a different level, as though there were two orders ofsize or disparate realities between which the sign flashes; secondly, in themselves, since a sign envelops another ‘object’ within the limits of the object which bears it, and incarnates a natural or spiritual power (an Idea); finally, in the response they elicit, since the movement of the response does not ‘resemble’ that of the sign. The movement of the swimmer does not resemble that of the wave, in particular, the movements of the swimming instructor which we reproduce on the sand bear no relation to the movements of the wave, which we learn to deal with only by grasping the former in practice as signs. That is why it is so difficult to say how someone learns: there is an innate or acquired practical familiarity with signs, which means that there is something amorous - but also something fatal - about all education. We learn nothing from those who say: ‘Do as I do’. Our only teachers are those who tell us to ‘do with me’, and are able to emit signs to be developed in heterogeneity rather than propose gestures for us to reproduce. In other words, there is no ideo-motivity, only sensory-motivity. When a body combines some of its own distinctive points with those of a wave, it espouses the principle of a repetition which is no longer that of the Same, but involves the Other - involves difference, from one wave and one gesture to another, and carries that difference through the repetitive space thereby constituted. To learn is indeed to constitute this space of an encounter with signs, in which the distinctive points renew themselves in each other, and repetition takes shape while disguising itself. Apprenticeship always gives rise to images of death, on the edges of the space it creates and with the help of the heterogeneity it engenders. Signs are deadly when they are lost in the distance, but also when they strike us with full force. Oedipus receives a sign once from too far away, once from too close, and between the two a terrible repetition of the crime is woven. Zarathustra receives his ‘sign’ either from too near or from too far, and only at the end does he foresee the correct distance which will turn that which in eternal return makes him ill into a liberatory and redemptive repetition. Signs are the true elements of theatre. They testify to the spiritual and natural powers which act beneath the words, gestures, characters and objects represented. They signify repetition as real movement, in opposition to representation which is a false movement of the abstract. 

We are right to speak of repetition when we find ourselves confronted by identical elements with exactly the same concept. However, we must distinguish between these discrete elements, these repeated objects, and a secret subject, the real subject of repetition, which repeats itself through them. Repetition must be understood in the pronominal; we must find the Self of repetition, the singularity within that which repeats. For there is no repetition without a repeater, nothing repeated without a repetitious soul. As a result, rather than the repeated and the repeater, the object and the subject, we must distinguish two forms of repetition. In every case repetition is difference without a concept. But in one case, the difference is taken to be only external to the concept; it is a difference between objects represented by the same concept, falling into the indifference of space and time. In the other case, the difference is internal to the Idea; it unfolds as pure movement, creative of a dynamic space and time which correspond to the Idea. The first repetition is repetition of the Same, explained by the identity of the concept or representation; the second includes difference, and includes itself in the alterity of the Idea, in the heterogeneity of an ‘a-presentation’. One is negative, occurring by default in the concept; the other affirmative, occurring by excess in the Idea. One is conjectural, the other categorical. One is static, the other dynamic. One is repetition in the effect, the other in the cause. One is extensive, the other intensive. One is ordinary, the other distinctive and singular. One is horizontal, the other vertical. One is developed and explicated, the other enveloped and in need of interpretation. One is revolving, the other evolving. One involves equality, commensurability and symmetry; the other is grounded in inequality, incommensurability and dissymmetry. One is material, the other spiritual, even in nature and in the earth. One is inanimate, the other carries the secret of our deaths and our lives, of our enchainments and our liberations, the demonic and the divine. One is a ‘bare’ repetition, the other a covered repetition, which forms itself in covering itself, in masking and disguising itself. One concerns accuracy, the other has authenticity as its criterion.

The two repetitions are not independent. One is the singular subject, the interiority and the heart of the other, the depths of the other. The other is only the external envelope, the abstract effect. The repetition of dissymmetry is hidden within symmetrical ensembles or effects; a repetition of distinctive points underneath that of ordinary points; and everywhere the Other in the repetition of the Same. This is the secret, the most profound repetition: it alone provides the principle of the other one, the reason for the blockage of concepts. In this domain, as in Sartor Resartus, it is the masked, the disguised or the costumed which turns out to be the truth of the uncovered. Necessarily, since this repetition is not hidden by something else but forms itself by disguising itself; it does not pre-exist its own disguises and, in forming itself, constitutes the bare repetition within which it becomes enveloped. Important consequences follow from this. When we are confronted by a repetition which proceeds masked, or comprises displacements, quickenings, slowdowns, variants or differences which are ultimately capable of leading us far away from the point of departure, we tend to see a mixed state in which repetition is not pure but only approximative: the very word repetition seems to be employed symbolically, by analogy or metaphor. It is true that we have strictly defined repetition as difference without concept. However, we would be wrong to reduce it to a difference which falls back into exteriority, because the concept embodies the form of the Same, without seeing that it can be internal to the Idea and possess in itself all the resources of signs, symbols and alterity which go beyond the concept as such. The examples invoked above concern the most diverse kinds of case, from nominal concepts to concepts of nature and freedom, and we could be charged with having mixed up all kinds of physical and psychical repetitions, even with having run together stereotypical repetitions and latent, symbolic repetitions in the psychical domain. However, we wished to show the coexistence of these instances in every repetitive structure, to show how repetition displays identical elements which necessarily refer back to a latent subject which repeats itself through these elements, forming an ‘other’ repetition at the heart of the first. We therefore suggest that this other repetition is in no way approximative or metaphorical. It is, on the contrary, the spirit of every repetition. It is the very letter of every repetition, its watermark or constitutive cipher. It forms the essence of that in which every repetition consists: difference without a concept, non-mediated difference. It is both the literal and spiritual primary sense of repetition. The material sense results from this other, as if secreted by it like a shell.

We began by distinguishing generality and repetition. Then we distinguished two forms of repetition. These two distinctions are linked: the consequences of the first are unfolded only in the second. For if we were content to treat repetition abstractly and as devoid of any interior, we would remain incapable of understanding why and how a concept could be naturally blocked, allowing a repetition which has nothing to do with generality to appear. Conversely, when we discover the literal interior of repetition, we have the means not only to understand the outer repetition as a cover, but also to recapture the order of generality (and, following Kierkegaard’s wish, to carry out the reconciliation of the singular with the general). For to the extent that the internal repetition projects itself through a bare repetition which covers it, the differences that it includes appear to be so many factors which oppose repetition, which attenuate it and vary it according to ‘general’ laws. Beneath the general operation of laws, however, there always remains the play of singularities. Cyclical generalities in nature are the masks of a singularity which appears through their interferences; and beneath the generalities of habit in moral life we rediscover singular processes of learning. The domain of laws must be understood, but always on the basis of a Nature and a Spirit superior to their own laws, which weave their repetitions in the depths of the earth and of the heart, where laws do not yet exist. The interior of repetition is always affected by an order of difference: it is only to the extent that something is linked to a repetition of an order other than its own that the repetition appears external and bare, and the thing itself subject to the categories of generality. It is the inadequation between difference and repetition which gives rise to the order of generality. Gabriel Tarde suggested in this sense that resemblance itself was only displaced repetition: real repetition is that which corresponds directly to a difference of the same degree as itself. Better than anyone, Tarde was able to elaborate a new dialectic by discovering in mind and nature the secret effort to establish an ever more perfect correspondence between difference and repetition.15

So long as we take difference to be conceptual difference, intrinsically conceptual, and repetition to be an extrinsic difference between objects represented by the same concept, it appears that the problem of their relation may be resolved by the facts. Are there repetitions - yes or no? Or is every difference indeed intrinsic and conceptual in the last instance? Hegel ridiculed Leibniz for having invited the court ladies to undertake experimental metaphysics while walking in the gardens, to see whether two leaves of a tree could not have the same concept. Replace the court ladies by forensic scientists: no two grains of dust are absolutely identical, no two hands have the same distinctive points, no two typewriters have the same strike, no two revolvers score their bullets in the same manner ... . Why, however, do we feel that the problem is not properly defined so long as we look for the criterion of a principium individuationis in the facts? It is because a difference can be internal, yet not conceptual (as the paradox of symmetrical objects shows). A dynamic space must be defined from the point of view of an observer tied to that space, not from an external position. There are internal differences which dramatise an Idea before representing an object. Difference here is internal to an Idea, even though it be external to the concept which represents an object. That is why the opposition between Kant and Leibniz seems much less strong to the extent that one takes account of the dynamic factors present in the two doctrines. If, in the forms of intuition, Kant recognised extrinsic differences not reducible to the order of concepts, these are no less ‘internal’ even though they cannot be regarded as ‘intrinsic’ by the understanding, and can be represented only in their external relation to space as a whole.16 In other words, following certain neo-Kantian interpretations, there is a step-by-step, internal, dynamic construction of space which must precede the ‘representation’ of the whole as a form of exteriority. The element of this internal genesis seems to us to consist of intensive quantity rather than schema, and to be related to Ideas rather than to concepts of the understanding. If the spatial order of extrinsic differences and the conceptual order of intrinsic differences are finally in harmony, as the schema shows they are, this is ultimately due to this intensive differential element, this synthesis of continuity at a given moment which, in the form of a continua repetitio, first gives rise internally to the space corresponding to Ideas. With Leibniz, the affinity between extrinsic differences and intrinsic conceptual differences already appealed to the internal process of a continua repetitio, grounded upon an intensive differential element which ensures the synthesis of continuity at a point in order to engender space from within.

There are repetitions which are not only extrinsic differences, just as there are internal differences which are neither intrinsic nor conceptual. We are thus in a better position to identify the source of the preceding ambiguities. When we define repetition as difference without concept, we are drawn to conclude that only extrinsic difference is involved in repetition; we consider, therefore, that any internal ‘novelty’ is sufficient to remove us from repetition proper and can be reconciled only with an approximative repetition, so-called by analogy. Nothing of the sort is true. For we do not yet know what is the essence of repetition, what is positively denoted by the expression ‘difference without concept’, or the nature of the interiority it may imply. Conversely, when we define difference as conceptual difference, we believe we have done enough to specify the concept of difference as such. Nevertheless, here again we have no idea of difference, no concept of difference as such. Perhaps the mistake of the philosophy of difference, from Aristotle to Hegel via Leibniz, lay in confusing the concept of difference with a merely conceptual difference, in remaining content to inscribe difference in the concept in general. In reality, so long as we inscribe difference in the concept in general we have no singular Idea of difference, we remain only with a difference already mediated by representation. We therefore find ourselves confronted by two questions: what is the concept of difference - one which is not reducible to simple conceptual difference but demands its own Idea, its own singularity at the level of Ideas? On the other hand, what is the essence of repetition -one which is not reducible to difference without concept, and cannot be confused with the apparent character of objects represented by the same concept, but bears witness to singularity as a power of Ideas? The meeting between these two notions, difference and repetition, can no longer be assumed: it must come about as a result of interferences and intersections between these two lines: one concerning the essence of repetition, the other the idea of difference.

[References]

Deleuze, Gilles. 1994 (1968). Difference and Repetition. Translated by Paul Patton. NEW YORK: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS.